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ERIC  BERNE.  M.D. 

CARMEL-BY-THE-SEA 
CALIFORNIA 


<  •>  y 


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THE 


EXPRESSION   OF  THE  EMOTIONS 


IN 


MAN  AND  ANIMALS. 


Br  CHAKLESIDAEWIN,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  &o. 


WITH     PHOTOGRAPHIC    AND    OTHER     ILLUSTRATIONS. 


P3 


NEW  YOKE: 
D.    APPLETON   AND    COMPANY, 

1,  8,  AND  6  BOND  STREET. 

1886, 


r 


D3 


sPec.  Co/1. 

Kcn-Circ.  CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION       Pages  1-26 


CHAP.  I. — GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  EXPRESSION. 

The  three  chief  principles  stated — The  first  principle — Serviceable 
actions  become  habitual  in  association  with  certain  states  of  the 
mind,  and  are  performed  whether  or  not  of  service  in  each  par- 
ticular case  —  The  force  of  habit  —  Inheritance  —  Associated 
habitual  movements  in  man — Keflex  actions — Passage  of  habits 
into  reflex  actions — Associated  habitual  movements  in  the  lower 
animals — Concluding  remarks  ..  27-49 


CHAP.  II. — GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OP  EXPRESSION — continued. 

The  Principle  of  Antithesis — Instances  in  the  dog  and  cat — Origin 
of  the  principle — Conventional  signs — The  principle  of  anti- 
thesis has  not  arisen  from  opposite  actions  being  consciously 
performed  under  opposite  impulses  50-65 


CHAP.  III. — GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  EXPRESSION — 
concluded. 

The  principle  of  the  direct  action  of  the  excited  nervous  system  on 
the  body,  independently  of  the  will  and  in  part  of  habit — 
Change  of  colour  in  the  hair — Trembling  of  the  muscles — 
Modified  secretions — Perspiration — Expression  of  extreme  pain 
— Of  rage,  great  joy,  and  terror — Contrast  between  the  emotions 
which  cause  and  do  not  cause  expressive  movements — Exciting 
and  depressing  states  of  the  mind — Summary  ..  ..  66-82 

CHAP.  IV. — MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  IN  ANIMALS. 

The  emission  of  sounds  —  Vocal  sounds  —  Sounds  otherwise  pro- 
duced— Erection  of  the  dermal  appendages,  hairs,  feathers,  &c., 
under  the  emotions  of  anger  and  terror — The  drawing  back  ot 
the  ears  as  a  preparation  for  fighting,  and  as  an  expression 
of  anger — Erection  of  the  ears  and  raising  the  head,  a  sign  ot 
attention  ..  83-115 


17  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  V. — SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS  OP  ANIMALS. 

The  Dog,  various  expressive  movements  of — Cats  —  Horses  — 
Ruminants  —  Monkeys,  their  expression  of  joy  and  affection  — 
Of  pain — Anger — Astonishment  and  Terror  ..  Pages  116-146 


CHAP.  VI. — SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS  OF  MAN  :    SUFFERING 
AND  WEEPING. 

The  screaming  and  weeping  of  infants — Form  of  features — Age  at 
which  weeping  commences — The  effects  of  habitual  restraint  on 
weeping — Sobbing — Cause  of  the  contraction  of  the  muscles 
round  the  eyes  during  screaming  —  Cause  of  the  secretion  of 
tears  147-177 


CHAP.  VII. — Low  SPIRITS,  ANXIETY,  GRIEF,  DEJECTION, 
DESPAIR. 

General  effect  of  grief  on  the  system  —  Obliquity  of  the  eye- 
brows under  suffering  —  On  the  cause  of  the  obliquity  of 
the  eyebrows  —  On  the  depression  of  the  corners  of  the 
mouth 178-197 


CHAP.  VIII. — JOY,  HIGH  SPIRITS,  LOVE,  TENDER  FEELINGS, 
DEVOTION. 

Laughter  primarily  the  expression  of  joy  —  Ludicrous  ideas  — 
Movements  of  the  features  during  laughter  —  Nature  of  the 
sound  produced  —  The  secretion  of  tears  during  loud  laughter 
—  Gradation  from  loud  laughter  to  gentle  smiling  —  High 
spirits  —  The  expression  of  love  —  Tender  feelings  —  De- 
votion    .  198-221 


CHAP.  IX. — EEFLECTION — MEDITATION — ILL-TEMPER — 
SULKINESS — DETERMINATION. 

The  act  of  frowning — Reflection  with  an  effort  or  with  the  per- 
ception of  something  difficult  or  disagreeable — Abstracted  medi- 
tation —  111- temper  —  Moroseness  —  Obstinacy  —  Sulkiness  and 
pouting  —  Decision  or  determination  —  The  firm  closure  of  the 
mouth  ,  222-238 


CONTENTS.  V 

CHAP.  X. — HATRED  AND  ANGER. 

Hatred — Rage,  effects  of  on  the  system — Uncovering  of  the  teeth 
— Rage  in  the  insane — Anger  and  indignation — As  'expressed  by 
the  various  races  of  man — Sneering  and  defiance— The  uncovering 
of  the  canine  tooth  on  one  side  of  the  face  ..  Pages  239-253 

CHAP.  XI.  —  DISDAIN  —  CONTEMPT  —  DISGUST  —  GUILT  — 
PRIDE,  ETC.  —  HELPLESSNESS  —  PATIENCE  —  AFFIRMATION 
AND  NEGATION. 

Contempt,  scorn  and  disdain,  variously  expressed — Derisive  smile 
—  Gestures  expressive  of  contempt  —  Disgust  —  Guilt,  deceit, 
pride,  &c. — Helplessness  or  impotence — Patience — Obstinacy — 
Shrugging  the  shoulders  common  to  most  of  the  races  of  man — 
Signs  of  affirmation  and  negation  254-277 

CHAP.  XII. — SURPRISE — ASTONISHMENT — FEAR — HORROR. 

Surprise,  astonishment — Elevation  of  the  eyebrows — Opening  the 
mouth — Protrusion  of  the  lips — Gestures  accompanying  surprise 
— Admiration — Fear — Terror — Erection  of  the  hair— Contrac- 
tion of  the  platysma  muscle — Dilatation  of  the  pupils — Horror 
— Conclusion  278-309 

CHAP.  XIII. — SELF-ATTENTION — SHAME — SHYNESS — 
MODESTY:  BLUSHING. 

Nature  of  a  blush  —  Inheritance  —  The  parts  of  the  body  most 
affected — Blushing  in  the  various  races  of  man — Accompanying 
gestures  —  Confusion  of  mind  —  Causes  of  blushing  —  Self- 
attention,  the  fundamental  element  —  Shyness  —  Shame,  from 
broken  moral  laws  and  conventional  rules — Modesty — Theory 
of  blushing— Recapitulation  310-347 

CHAP.  XIV. — CONCLUDING  REMARKS  AND  SUMMARY. 
The  three  leading  principles  which  have  determined  the  chief  move- 
ments of  expression  —  Their  inheritance  —  On  the  part  which 
tho  will  and  intention  have  played  in  the  acquirement  of  various 
expressions  —  The  instinctive  recognition  of  expression  —  Tho 
bearing  of  our  subject  on  the  specific  unity  of  the  races  of  man — • 
On  the  successive  acquirement  of  various  expressions  by  the 
progenitors  of  man — The  importance  of  expression — Conclusion 

348-367 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG.  PAGE 

1.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  face,  from  Sir  C.  Bell         ..      ..  24 

2.  „                   „                   „                   Henle 24 

3-             »                    »                  »                       „      25 

4.  Small  dog  watching  a  cat  on  a  table 43 

5.  Dog  approaching  another  dog  with  hostile  intentions      ..      ..  52 

6.  Dog  in  a  humble  and  affectionate  frame  of  mind 53 

7.  Half  bred  Shepherd  Dog       54 

8.  Dog  caressing  his  master      55 

9.  Cat.  savage,  and  prepared  to  fight       58 

10.  Cat  in  an  affectionate  frame  of  mind 59 

11.  Sound-producing  quills  from  the  tail  of  the  Porcupine     ..      ..  93 

12.  Hen  driving  away  a  dog  from  her  chickens      98 

13.  Swan  driving  away  an  intruder 99 

14.  Head  of  snarling  dog 118 

15.  Cat  terrified  at  a  dog 128 

16.  Cynopithecus  niger,  in  a  placid  condition 136 

1 7.  The  same,  when  pleased  by  being  caressed         138 

18.  Chimpanzee  disappointed  and  sulky 141 

19.  Photograph  of  an  insane  woman 296 

20.  Terror 299 

21.  Horror  and  Agony         306 


Plate       I.  to  face  page  148. 

II.  ,,  180. 

,,       111.          ,,  202. 

IV.  *5c. 


Plate      V.  to  face  page  255. 
„      VI.         .,  264. 

,     VII.  300. 


N.B. — Several  of  the  figures  in  these  seven  Heliotype  Plates  have 
been  reproduced  from  photographs,  instead  of  from  the  original 
negatives;  and  they  are  in  consequence  somewhat  indistinct. 
Nevertheless  they  are  faithful  copies,  and  are  much  superior  for 
my  purpose  to  any  drawing,  however  carefully  executed. 


ON  THE  EXPKESSION 


OP   THE 


EMOTIONS  IN  MAN  AND  ANIMALS. 


INTKODUCTION. 

MANY  works  have  been  written  on  Expression,  but  a 
greater  number  on  Physiognomy, — that  is,  on  the 
recognition  of  character  through  the  study  of  the  per- 
manent form  of  the  features.  With  this  latter  subject 
I  am  not  here  concerned.  The  older  treatises,1  which 
I  have  consulted,  have  been  of  little  or  no  service 
to  me.  The  famous  '  Conferences '  2  of  the  painter  Le 
Brun,  published  in  1667,  is  the  best  known  ancient 
work,  and  contains  some  good  remarks.  Another  some- 
what old  essay,  namely,  the  'Discours,'  delivered 
1774-1782,  by  the  well-known  Dutch  anatomist  Cam- 
per,3 can  hardly  be  considered  as  having  made  any 
marked  advance  in  the  subject.  The  following  works, 
on  the  contrary,  deserve  the  fullest  consideration. 


1  J.  Parsons,  in  his  paper  in  the  Appendix  to  the  '  Philosophical 
Transactions '  for  1746,  p.  41,  gives  a  list  of  forty-one  old  authors  who 
toave  written  on  Expression. 

2  '  Conferences  sur  1'expression  des  differents  Caracteres  des  Passions.* 
Paris,  4to,  1667.    I  always  quote  from  the  republication  of  the  •  Con- 
ferences '  in  the  edition  of  Lavater,  by  Moreau,  which  appeared  in  1820, 
as  given  in  vol.  ix.  p.  257. 

3  'Discours  par  Pierre  Camper  snr  le  moytn  de  representer  lea 
diverses  passions,'  &c.     1792. 


2  INTKODUCTION. 

Sir  Charles  Bell,  so  illustrious  for  his  discoveries  in 
physiology,  published  in  1806  the  first  edition,  and  in 
1844  the  third  edition  of  his  *  Anatomy  and  Philosophy 
of  Expression.'4  He  may  with  justice  be  said,  not 
only  to  have  laid  the  foundations  of  the  subject  as  a 
branch  of  science,  but  to  have  built  up  a  noble  struc- 
ture. His  work  is  in  every  way  deeply  interesting;  it 
includes  graphic  descriptions  of  the  various  emotions,  and 
is  admirably  illustrated.  It  is  generally  admitted  that 
his  service  consists  chiefly  in  having  shown  the  intimate 
relation  which  exists  between  the  movements  of  expres- 
sion and  those  of  respiration.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant points,  small  as  it  may  at  first  appear,  is 
that  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  are  involuntarily 
contracted  during  violent  expiratory  efforts,  in  order 
to  protect  these  delicate  organs  from  the  pressure  of 
the  blood.  This  fact,  which  has  been  fully  investigated 
for  me  with  the  greatest  kindness  by  Professor  JJonders 
of  Utrecht,  throws,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  a  flood 
of  light  on  several  of  the  most  important  expressions  of 
the  human  countenance.  The  merits  of  Sir  C.  Bell's 
work  have  been  undervalued  or  quite  ignored  by  several 
foreign  writers,  but  have  been  fully  admitted  by  some, 
for  instance  by  M.  Lemoine,5  who  with  great  justice 
says : — "  Le  livre  de  Ch.  Bell  devrait  etre  medite  par 
"  quiconque  essaye  de  faire  parler  le  visage  de  1'homme, 
"  par  les  philosophes  aussi  bien  que  par  les  artistes, 
"  car,  sous  une  apparence  plus  legere  et  sous  le  pretexte 
"  de  1'esthetique,  c'est  un  des  plus  beaux  moiiu- 


4  I  always  quote  from  the  third  edition,  1844,  which  was  published 
after  the  death  of  Sir  0.  Bell,  and  contains  his  latest  corrections.    The 
first  edition  of  1806  is  much  interior  in  merit,  and  does  not  include 
some  of  his  more  important  views. 

5  '  De  ia  Physionomie  et  de  ia  Parole,'  par  Albert  Lemoine,  1865, 
p.  101. 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

"  rnents  de  la  science  des  rapports  du  physique  et  du 
"  moral." 

From  reasons  which  will  presently  be  assigned,  Sir 
C.  Bell  did  not  attempt  to  follow  out  his  views  as 
far  as  they  might  have  been  carried.  He  does  not  try 
to  explain  why  different  muscles  are  brought  into  action 
under  different  emotions ;  why,  for  instance,  the  inner 
ends  of  the  eyebrows  are  raised,  and  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  depressed,  by  a  person  suffering  from  grief  or 
anxiety. 

In  1807  M.  Moreau  edited  an  edition  of  Lavater 
on  Physiognomy, 6  in  which  he  incorporated  several 
of  his  own  essays,  containing  excellent  descriptions  of 
the  movements  of  the  facial  muscles,  together  with 
many  valuable  remarks.  He  throws,  however,  very 
little  light  on  the  philosophy  of  the  subject.  For  in- 
stance, M.  Moreau,  in  speaking  of  the  act  of  frowning, 
that  is,  of  the  contraction  of  the  muscle  called  by 


6  *  L'Art  de  connaitre  lea  Homines,'  &c.,  par  G.  Lavater.  Tlse 
earliest  edition  of  this  work,  referred  to  in  the  preface  to  the  edition  of 
1820  in  ten  volumes,  as  containing  the  observations  of  M.  Moreau.  is 
said  to  have  been  published  in  1807 ;  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  this  is  cor- 
rect, because  the  *  Notice  sur  Lavater '  at  the  commencement  of  volume  i. 
is  dated  April  13,  1806.  1 ."  some  bibliographical  works,  however,  the 
date  of  1805-1809  is  given  but  it  seems  impossible  that  1805  can 
be  correct.  Dr.  Duchenne  remarks  ('  Me'canisme  de  la  Physionomie 
Humaine,'  8vo  edit.  1862,  p.  5,  an J  '  Archives  Generates  de  Me'decine,' 
Jan.  et  Fev.  1862)  that  M.  Moreau  "  a  compost  pour  son  ouvrage  un 
article  important,"  &c.,  in  the  year  1805 ;  and  I  find  in  volume  i.  of  the 
edition  of  1820  passages  bearing  the  dates  of  December  12,  1805,  and 
another  January  5,  1806,  besides  that  of  April  13,  1806,  above  referred 
to.  In  consequence  of  some  of  these  passages  having  thus  been  com- 
posed in  1805,  Dr.  Duchenne  assigns  to  M.  Moreau  the  priority  over 
Sir  C.  Bell,  whose  work,  as  we  have  seen,  was  published  in  1806. 
This  is  a  very  unusual  manner  of  determining  the  priority  of  scientific 
works ;  but  such  questions  are  of  extremely  little  importance  in  com- 
parison with  their  relative  merits.  The  passages  above  quoted  from 
M.  Moreau  and  from  Le  Brun  are  taken  in  this  and  all  other  casts 
from  the  edition  of  1820  of  Lavater,  torn.  iv.  p.  228,  and  torn.  ix.  p.  27U. 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

French  writers  the  sourcilier  (corrugator  supercilii), 
remarks  with  truth : — "  Cette  action  des  sourciliers  est 
"  un  des  symptdrnes  les  plus  tranches  de  Fexpression 
"  des  affections  penibles  ou  concentrees."  He  then 
adds  that  these  muscles,  from  their  attachment  and 
position,  are  fitted  "  a  resserrer,  a  concentrer  les  princi- 
*'  paux  traits  de  la  face,  comme  il  convient  dans  toutes 
"  ces  passions  vraiment  oppressives  ou  profondes,  dans 
"  ces  affections  dont  le  sentiment  semble  porter  1'orga- 
"  nisation  a  revenir  sur  elle-meme,  a  se  contractor  et 
"  &  s'amoindrir,  comme  pour  offrir  moins  de  prise  et  de 
"  surface  a  des  impressions  redoutables  ou  importunes." 
He  who  thinks  that  remarks  of  this  kind  throw  any 
light  on  the  meaning  or  origin  of  the  different  expres- 
sions, takes  a  very  different  view  of  the  subject  to 
what  I  do. 

In  the  above  passage  there  is  but  a  slight,  if  any, 
advance  in  the  philosophy  of  the  subject,  beyond  that 
reached  by  the  painter  Le  Bran,  who,  in  1667,  in  de- 
scribing the  expression  of  fright,  says  : — "  Le  sourcil 
"  qui  est  abaisse  d'un  cote  et  eleve  de  1'autre,  fait  voir 
"  que  la  partie  elevee  semble  le  vouloir  joindre  au 
"  cerveau  pour  le  garantir  du  mal  que  1'ame  aperpoit, 
"  et  le  cote  qui  est  abaisse  et  qui  parait  enfle,  nous  fait 
"  trouver  dans  cet  etat  par  les  esprits  qui  viennent  du 
"  cerveau  en  abondance,  comme  pour  couvrir  1'ame  et 
"  la  defendre  du  mal  qu'elle  craint ;  la  bouche  fort 
"  ouverte  fait  voir  le  saisissement  du  coeur,  par  le 
"  sang  qui  se  retire  vers  lui,  ce  qui  1'oblige,  voulant 
"  respirer,  k  faire  un  effort  qui  est  cause  que  la  bouche 
"  s'ouvre  extremernent,  et  qui,  lorsqu'il  passe  par  les 
"  organes  de  la  voix,  forme  un  son  qui  n'est  point 
"  articule ;  que  si  les  muscles  et  les  veines  paraissent 
"  enfles,  ce  n'est  que  par  les  esprits  que  le  cerveau 
"  envoie  en  ces  parties-la."  I  have  thought  the  fore- 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

going  sentences  worth  quoting,  as  specimens  of  the 
surprising  nonsense  which  has  been  written  on  the 
subject. 

'  The  Physiology  or  Mechanism  of  Blushing/  by  Dr. 
Burgess,  appeared  in  1839,  and  to  this  work  I  shall 
frequently  refer  in  my  thirteenth  Chapter. 

In  1862  Dr.  Duchenue  published  two  editions,  in 
folio  and  octavo,  of  his  '  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie 
'Humaine/  in  which  he  analyses  by  means  of  elec- 
tricity, and  illustrates  by  magnificent  photographs,  the 
movements  of  the  facial  muscles.  He  has  generously 
permitted  me  to  copy  as  many  of  his  photographs  as  I 
desired.  His  works  have  been  spoken  lightly  of,  or 
quite  passed  over,  by  some  of  his  countrymen.  It  is 
possible  that  Dr.  Duchenne  may  have  exaggerated  the 
importance  of  the  contraction  of  single  muscles  in 
giving  expression ;  for,  owing  to  the  intimate  manner 
in  which  the  muscles  are  connected,  as  may  be 
seen  in  Henle's  anatomical  drawings7 — the  best  I 
believe  ever  published — it  is  difficult  to  believe  in 
their  separate  action.  Nevertheless,  it  is  manifest 
that  Dr.  Duchenne  clearly  apprehended  this  and 
other  sources  of  error,  and  as  it  is  known  that  he 
was  eminently  successful  in  elucidating  the  physio- 
logy of  the  muscles  of  the  hand  by  the  aid  of 
electricity,  it  is  probable  that  he  is  generally  in 
the  right  about  the  muscles  of  the  face.  In  my  opinion, 
Dr.  Duchenne  has  greatly  advanced  the  subject  by  his 
treatment  of  it.  No  one  has  more  carefully  studied  the 
contraction  of  each  separate  muscle,  and  the  conse- 
quent furrows  produced  on  the  skin.  He  lias  also,  and 
this  is  a  very  important  service,  shown  which  muscles 


'  '  Handbucli  der  Systematischen  Anatomie  des  Menschen.'    Band  I, 
Dritfce  Abtheilung,  1858. 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

are  least  under  the  separate  control  of  the  will.  He 
enters  very  little  into  theoretical  considerations,  and 
seldom  attempts  to  explain  why  certain  muscles  and 
not  others  contract  under  the  influence  of  certain 
emotions. 

A  distinguished  French  anatomist,  Pierre  Gratiolet, 
gave  a  course  of  lectures  on  Expression  at  the  Sorbonne, 
and  his  notes  were  published  (1865)  after  his  death, 
under  the  title  of  '  De  la  Physionomie  et  des  Mouve- 
ments  d'Expression.'  This  is  a  very  interesting  work, 
full  of  valuable  observations.  His  theory  is  rather 
complex,  and,  as  far  as  it  can  be  given  in  a  single  sen- 
tence (p.  65),  is  as  follows : — "  II  resulte,  de  tous  les 
"  faits  que  j'ai  rappeles,  que  les  sens,  1'imagination  et 
"  la  pensee  elle-meme,  si  elevee,  si  abstraite  qu'on  la 
"  suppose,  ne  peuvent  s'exercer  sans  eveiller  un  senti- 
"  ment  correlatif,  et  que  ce  sentiment  se  traduit 
"  directement,  sympathiquement,  symboliqueinent  ou 
"  metaphoriquement,  dans  toutes  les  spheres  des  or- 
"  ganes  exterieurs,  qui  le  racontent  tous,  suivant  leur 
"  mode  d'action  propre,  comme  si  chacun  d'eux  avait 
"  ete  directement  affecte." 

Gratiolet  appears  to  overlook  inherited  habit,  and 
even  to  some  extent  habit  in  the  individual;  and 
therefore  he  fails,  as  it  seems  to  me,  to  give  the  right 
explanation,  or  any  explanation  at  all,  of  many  ges- 
tures and  expressions.  As  an  illustration  of  what  he 
calls  symbolic  movements,  I  will  quote  his  remarks 
(p.  37),  taken  from  M.  Chevreul,  on  a  man  playing  at 
billiards.  "  Si  une  bille  devie  legerement  de  la  direc- 
"  tion  que  le  joueur  pretend  lui  imprimer,  ne  1'avez-vous 
"  pas  vu  cent  fois  la  pousser  du  regard,  de  la  tete  et 
"  meme  des  epaules,  comme  si  ces  mouvements,  pure- 
"  ment  symboliques,  pouvaient  rectifier  son  trajet  ?  Des 
"  mouvements  non  moins  significatifs  se  produisent 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

"  quand  la  bille  manque  d'une  impulsion  suffisante.  Et, 
(S  chez  les  joueurs  novices,  ils  sont  quelquefois  accuses 
"  au  point  d'eveiller  le  sourire  sur  les  levres  des  spec- 
"  tateurs."  Such  movements,  as  it  appears  to  me,  may 
be  attributed  simply  to  habit.  As  often  as  a  man 
has  wished  to  move  an  object  to  one  side,  he  has  always 
pushed  it  to  that  side ;  when  forwards,  he  has  pushed 
it  forwards ;  and  if  he  has  wished  to  arrest  it,  he  has 
pulled  backwards.  Therefore,  when  a  man  sees  his  ball 
travelling  in  a  wrong  direction,  and  he  intensely  wishes 
it  to  go  in  another  direction,  he  cannot  avoid,  from  long 
habit,  unconsciously  performing  movements  which  in 
other  cases  he  has  found  effectual. 

As  an  instance  of  sympathetic  movements  Gratiolet 
gives  (p.  212)  the  following  case  : — "  un  jeune  chien  a 
"  oreilles  droites,  auquel  son  maitre  presente  de  loin 
"  quelque  viande  appetissante,  fixe  avec  ardeur  ses 
"  yeux  sur  cet  objet  dont  il  suit  tous  les  niouvements, 
"  et  pendant  que  les  yeux  regardent,  les  deux  oreilles 
"  se  portent  en  avant  comrne  si  cet  objet  pouvait  etre 
"  entendu."  Here,  instead  of  speaking  of  sympathy 
between  the  ears  and  eyes,  it  appears  to  me  more 
simple  to  believe,  that  as  dogs  during  many  gene- 
rations have,  whilst  intently  looking  at  any  object, 
pricked  their  ears  in  order  to  perceive  any  sound; 
and  conversely  have  looked  intently  in  the  direction 
of  a  sound  to  which  they  may  have  listened,  the 
movements  of  these  organs  have  become  firmly  asso- 
ciated together  through  long-continued  habit. 

Dr.  Piderit  published  in  1859  an  essay  on  Expression, 
which  I  have  not  seen,  but  in  which,  as  he  states,  he 
forestalled  Gratiolet  in  many  of  his  views.  In  1867 
he  published  his l  Wissenschaftliches  System  der  Mimik 
und  Physiognomik.'  It  is  hardly  possible  to  give  in  a 
few  sentences  a  fair  notion  of  his  views ;  perhaps  the 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

two  following  sentences  will  tell  as  much  as  can  be 
briefly  told :  "  the  muscular  movements  of  expression 
"  are  in  part  related  to  imaginary  objects,  and  in  part 
"  to  imaginary  sensorial  impressions.  In  this  propo- 
u  sition  lies  the  key  to  the  comprehension  of  all 
"  expressive  muscular  movements."  (s.  25.)  Again, 
"  Expressive  movements  manifest  themselves  chiefly 
"  in  the  numerous  and  mobile  muscles  of  the  face, 
'*  partly  because  the  nerves  by  which  they  are  set  into 
"  motion  originate  in  the  most  immediate  vicinity  of 
"  the  mind-organ,  but  partly  also  because  these  muscles 
"  serve  to  support  the  organs  of  sense."  (s.  26.)  If  Dr. 
Piderit  had  studied  Sir  C.  Bell's  work,  he  would  pro- 
bably not  have  said  (s.  101)  that  violent  laughter  causes 
a  frown  from  partaking  of  the  nature  of  pain ;  or 
that  with  infants  (s.  103)  the  tears  irritate  the  eyes,  and 
thus  excite  the  contraction  of  the  surrounding  muscles. 
Many  good  remarks  are  scattered  throughout  this  volume, 
to  which  I  shall  hereafter  refer. 

Short  discussions  on  Expression  may  be  found  in 
various  works,  which  need  not  here  be  particularised. 
Mr.  Bain,  however,  in  two  of  his  works  has  treated  the 
subject  at  some  length.  He  says,8  "  I  look  upon  the 
"  expression  so-called  as  part  and  parcel  of  the  feel- 
"  ing.  I  believe  it  to  be  a  general  law  of  the  mind  that, 
u  along  with  the  fact  of  inward  feeling  or  conscious- 
"  ness,  there  is  a  diffusive  action  or  excitement  over 
"  the  bodily  members."  In  another  place  he  adds,  "  A 
"  very  considerable  number  of  the  facts  may  be  brought 
"  under  the  following  principle :  namely,  that  states  of 
"  pleasure  are  connected  with  an  increase,  and  states 
"  of  pain  with  an  abatement,  of  some,  or  all,  of  the 

8  «  The  Senses  and  the  Intellect,'  2nd  edit.  1864,  pp.  96  and  288. 
The  preface  to  the  first  edition  of  this  work  is  dated  June,  1855.  See 
also  the  2nd  edition  of  Mr.  Bain's  work  on  the  '  Emotions  and  Will.' 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

*  vital  functions."  But  the  above  law  of  the  diffusive 
action  of  feelings  seems  too  general  to  throw  much  light 
on  special  expressions. 

Mr.  Herbert  Spencer,  in  treating  of  the  Feelings  in 
his  'Principles  of  Psychology '  (1855),  makes  the  fol- 
lowing remarks : — "  Fear,  when  strong,  expresses  itself 
"  in  cries,  in  efforts  to  hide  or  escape,  in  palpitations 
"  and  tremblings ;  and  these  are  just  the  manifestations 
"  that  would  accompany  an  actual  experience  of  the 
"  evil  feared.  The  destructive  passions  are  shown  in  a 
"  general  tension  of  the  muscular  system,  in  gnashing  of 
"  the  teeth  and  protrusion  of  the  claws,  in  dilated  eyes 
"  and  nostrils,  in  growls ;  and  these  are  weaker  forms  of 
"  the  actions  that  accompany  the  killing  of  prey." 
Here  we  have,  as  I  believe,  the  true  theory  of  a 
large  number  of  expressions;  but  the  chief  interest 
and  difficulty  of  the  subject  lies  in  following  out  the 
wonderfully  complex  results.  I  infer  that  some  one  (but 
who  he  is  I  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain)  formerly 
advanced  a  nearly  similar  view,  for  Sir  C.  Bell  says,9 
"  It  has  been  maintained  that  what  are  called  the  ex- 
"  ternal  signs  of  passion,  are  only  the  concomitants  of 
"  those  voluntary  movements  which  the  structure  ren- 
"  ders  necessary."  Mr.  Spencer  has  also  published 10 
a  valuable  essay  on  the  physiology  of  Laughter,  in 
which  he  insists  on  "  the  general  law  that  feeling 
"  passing  a  certain  pitch,  habitually  vents  itself  in 
"  bodily  action ;"  and  that  "  an  overflow  of  nerve-force 
'*  undirected  by  any  motive,  will  manifestly  take  first 
"  the  most  habitual  routes ;  and  if  these  do  not  suffice, 
"  will  next  overflow  into  the  less  habitual  ones."  This 


'  The  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  3rd  edit.  p.  121. 
10  'Essays,   Scientific,   Political,  and  Speculative,'  Second  Series, 
1863,  p.  111.     There  is  a  discussion  on  Laughter  in  the  First  Series  of 
Essays,  which  discussion  seems  to  me  of  very  inferior  value. 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

law  I  believe  to  be  of  the  highest  importance  in  throw- 
ing light  on  our  subject.11 

All  the  authors  who  have  written  on  Expression, 
with  the  exception  of  Mr.  Spencer — the  great  expoun- 
der of  the  principle  of  Evolution — appear  to  have  been 
firmly  convinced  that  species,  man  of  course  included, 
came  into  existence  in  their  present  condition.  Sir  C. 
Bell,  being  thus  convinced,  maintains  that  many  of 
our  facial  muscles  are  "  purely  instrumental  in  ex- 
"  pression ;"  or  are  "  a  special  provision  "  for  this  sole 
object. 12  But  the  simple  fact  that  the  anthropoid 
apes  possess  the  same  facial  muscles  as  we  do,13 
renders  it  very  improbable  that  these  muscles  in  our 
case  serve  exclusively  for  expression  ;  for  no  one,  I 
presume,  would  be  inclined  to  admit  that  monkeys 
have  been  endowed  with  special  muscles  solely  for 
exhibiting  their  hideous  grimaces.  Distinct  uses,  inde- 
pendently of  expression,  can  indeed  be  assigned  with 
much  probability  for  almost  all  the  facial  muscles. 

Sir  C.  Bell  evidently  wished  to  draw  as  broad  a 
distinction  as  possible  between  man  and  the  lower 
animals ;  and  he  consequently  asserts  that  with  "  the 


11  Since  the  publication  of  the  essay  just  referred  to,  Mr.  Spencer 
has  written  another, on  " Morals  and  Moral  Sentiments,"  in  the  'Fort- 
nightly Review,'  April  1,  1871,  p.  426.    He  has,  also,  now  published 
his  final  conclusions  in  vol.  ii.  of  the  second  edit,  of  the  '  Principles  of 
Psychology,'  1872,  p.  539.     I  may  state,  in  order  that  I  may  not  be 
accused  of  trespassing  on  Mr.  Spencer's  domain,   that  I  announced 
in  my  « Descent  of  Man,'  that  I  had  then  written  a  part  of  the  present 
volume :  my  first  MS.  notes  on  the  subject  of  expression  bear  the 
date  of  the  year  1838. 

12  'Anatomy  of  Expression,'  3rd  edit.  pp.  98,  121,  131. 

13  Professor  Owen  expressly  states  (Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.  1830,  p.  28) 
that  this  is  the  case  with  respect  to  the  Orang,  and  specifies  all  the 
more  important  muscles  which  are  well  known  to  serve  with  man 
for  the  expression  of  his  feelings.     See,  also,  a  description  of  several 
of  the  facial  muscles  in  the  Chimpanzee,  by  Prof.  Macalister,  in  '  Annals 
an  1  Magazine  of  Natural  History,'  vol.  vii.  May,  1871,  p.  342. 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

"  lower  creatures  there  is  no  expression  but  what  may 
•'  be  referred,  more  or  less  plainly,  to  their  acts  of 
"  volition  or  necessary  instincts."  He  further  maintains 
that  their  faces  "  seem  chiefly  capable  of  expressing 
"  rage  and  fear."  u  But  man  himself  cannot  express 
love  and  humility  by  external  signs,  so  plainly  as 
does  a  dog,  when  with  drooping  ears,  hanging  lips, 
flexuous  body,  and  wagging  tail,  he  meets  his  beloved 
master.  Nor  can  these  movements  in  the  dog  be 
explained  by  acts  of  volition  or  necessary  instincts, 
any  more  than  the  beaming  eyes  and  smiling  cheeks 
of  a  man  when  he  meets  an  old  friend.  If  Sir  C.  Bell 
had  been  questioned  about  the  expression  of  affection 
in  the  dog,  he  would  no  doubt  have  answered  that  this 
animal  had  been  created  with  special  instincts,  adapt- 
ing him  for  association  with  man,  and  that  all  further 
enquiry  on  the  subject  was  superfluous. 

Although  Gratiolet  emphatically  denies  15  that  any 
muscle  has  been  developed  solely  for  the  sake  of  ex- 
pression, he  seems  never  to  have  reflected  on  the 
principle  of  evolution.  He  apparently  looks  at  each 
species  as  a  separate  creation.  So  it  is  with  the  other 
writers  on  Expression.  For  instance,  Dr.  Duchenne, 
after  speaking  of  the  movements  of  the  limbs,  refers 
to  those  which  give  expression  to  the  face,  and 
remarks : 16  "  Le  createur  n'a  done  pas  eu  a  se 
"  preoccuper  ici  des  besoins  de  la  mecanique ;  il  a 
"  pu,  selon  sa  sagesse,  ou  —  que  Ton  me  pardonne 
"  cette  maniere  de  parler— par  une  divine  fantaisie, 
"  mettre  en  action  tel  ou  tel  muscle,  un  seul  ou  plu- 
"  sieurs  muscles  a  la  fois,  lorsqu'il  a  voulu  que  les 
**  signes  caracteristiques  des  passions,  meme  les  plus 

14  'Anatomy  of  Expression,'  pp.  121,  138. 

15  'De  la  Physionomie,'  pp.  12,  73. 

16  •  Mecanisme  de  la  Physiunomie  Humaine,'  8vo  edit.  p.  31. 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

"  fugaces,  f assent  ecrits  passagerement  sur  la  face  de 
*  1'homme.  Ce  langage  de  la  physionomie  une  fois 
"  cre*6,  il  lui  a  suffi,  pour  le  rend  re  universel  et  im- 
"  muable,  de  donner  a  tout  etre  humain  la  faculte 
"  instinctive  d'exprimer  toujours  ses  sentiments  par 
"  la  contraction  des  memes  muscles." 

Many  writers  consider  the  whole  subject  of  Expression 
as  inexplicable.  Thus  the  illustrious  physiologist  Miiller, 
says, 17  "  The  completely  different  expression  of  the 
"  features  in  different  passions  shows  that,  according  to 
"  the  kind  of  feeling  excited,  entirely  different  groups 
"  of  the  fibres  of  the  facial  nerve  are  acted  on.  Of  the 
"  cause  of  this  we  are  quite  ignorant." 

No  doubt  as  long  as  man  and  all  other  animals  are 
viewed  as  independent  creations,  an  effectual  stop  is  put 
to  our  natural  desire  to  investigate  as  far  as  possible 
the  causes  of  Expression.  By  this  doctrine,  anything 
and  everything  can  be  equally  well  explained ;  and  it 
has  proved  as  pernicious  with  respect  to  Expression 
as  to  every  other  branch  of  natural  history.  With 
mankind  some  expressions,  such  as  the  bristling  of  the 
hair  under  the  influence  of  extreme  terror,  or  the  un- 
covering of  the  teeth  under  that  of  furious  rage,  can 
hardly  be  understood,  except  on  the  belief  that  man  once 
existed  in  a  much  lower  and  animal-like  condition.  The 
community  of  certain  expressions  in  distinct  though 
allied  species,  as  in  the  movements  of  the  same  facial 
muscles  during  laughter  by  man  and  by  various  mon- 
keys, is  rendered  somewhat  more  intelligible,  if  we 
believe  in  their  descent  from  a  common  progenitor.  He 
who  admits  on  general  grounds  that  the  structure  and 
habits  of  all  animals  have  been  gradually  evolved,  will 
look  at  the  whole  subject  of  Expression  in  a  new  and 
interesting  light. 

17  •  Elements  of  Physiology,'  English  translation,  vol.  ii.  p.  934. 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

The  study  of  Expression  is  difficult,  owing  to  the 
movements  being  often  extremely  slight,  and  of  a 
fleeting  nature.  A  difference  may  be  clearly  per- 
ceived, and  yet  it  may  be  impossible,  at  least  I  have 
found  it  so,  to  state  in  what  the  difference  consists. 
When  we  witness  any  deep  emotion,  our  sympathy  is 
so  strongly  excited,  that  close  observation  is  forgotten 
or  rendered  almost  impossible ;  of  which  fact  I  have 
had  many  curious  proofs.  Our  imagination  is  another 
and  still  more  serious  source  of  error ;  for  if  from  the 
nature  of  the  circumstances  we  expect  to  see  any  ex- 
pression, we  readily  imagine  its  presence.  Notwith- 
standing Dr.  Duchenne's  great  experience,  he  for  a 
long  time  fancied,  as  he  states,  that  several  muscles 
contracted  under  certain  emotions,  whereas  he  ulti- 
mately convinced  himself  that  the  movement  was 
confined  to  a  single  muscle. 

In  order  to  acquire  as  good  a  foundation  as  possible, 
and  to  ascertain,  independently  of  common  opinion, 
how  far  particular  movements  of  the  features  and 
gestures  are  really  expressive  of  certain  states  of  the 
mind,  I  have  found  the  following  means  the  most 
serviceable.  In  the  first  place,  to  observe  infants; 
for  they  exhibit  many  emotions,  as  Sir  C.  Bell  remarks, 
"  with  extraordinary  force ;"  whereas,  in  after  life,  some 
of  our  expressions  "  cease  to  have  the  pure  and  simple 
"  source  from  which  they  spring  in  infancy." 18 

In  the  second  place,  it  occurred  to  me  that  the 
insane  ought  to  be  studied,  as  they  are  liable  to  tho 
strongest  passions,  and  give  uncontrolled  vent  to  them. 
I  had,  myself,  no  opportunity  of  doing  this,  so  I  applied 
to  Dr.  Maudsley,  and  received  from  him  an  intro- 
duction to  Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne,  who  has  charge 


'  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  3rd  edit.  p.  198. 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

of  an  immense  asylum  near  Wakefield,  and  who,  as 
I  found,  had  already  attended  to  the  subject.  This 
excellent  observer  has  with  unwearied  kindness  sent 
me  copious  notes  and  descriptions,  with  valuable  sug- 
gestions on  many  points ;  and  I  can  hardly  over-esti- 
mate the  value  of  his  assistance.  I  owe  also,  to  the 
kindness  of  Mr.  Patrick  Nicol,  of  the  Sussex  Lunatic 
Asylum,  interesting  statements  on  two  or  three  points. 

Thirdly,  Dr.  Duchenne  galvanized,  as  we  have  al- 
ready seen,  certain  muscles  in  the  face  of  an  old  man, 
whose  skin  was  little  sensitive,  and  thus  produced 
various  expressions  which  were  photographed  on  a 
large  scale.  It  fortunately  occurred  to  me  to  show 
several  of  the  best  plates,  without  a  wrord  of  explana- 
tion, to  above  twenty  educated  persons  of  various  ages 
and  both  sexes,  asking  them,  in  each  case,  by  what 
emotion  or  feeling  the  old  man  was  supposed  to  be 
agitated;  and  I  recorded  their  answers  in  the  words 
which  they  used.  Several  of  the  expressions  were 
instantly  recognised  by  almost  everyone,  though  de- 
scribed in  not  exactly  the  same  terms ;  and  these  may, 
I  think,  be  relied  on  as  truthful,  and  will  hereafter  be 
specified.  On  the  other  hand,  the  most  widely  different 
judgments  were  pronounced  in  regard  to  some  of  them. 
This  exhibition  was  of  use  in  another  way,  by  convin- 
cing me  how  easily  we  may  be  misguided  by  our  imagi- 
nation ;  for  when  I  first  looked  through  Dr.  Duchenne's 
photographs,  reading  at  the  same  time  the  text,  and 
thus  learning  what  was  intended,  I  was  struck  with 
admiration  at  the  truthfulness  of  all,  with  only  a  few 
exceptions.  Nevertheless,  if  I  had  examined  them,  with- 
out any  explanation,  no  doubt  I  should  have  been  as  much 
perplexed,  in  some  cases,  as  other  persons  have  been. 

Fourthly,  I  had  hoped  to  derive  much  aid  from  the 
great  masters  in  painting  and  sculpture,  who  are  such 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

close  observers.  Accordingly,  I  have  looked  at  photo- 
graphs and  engravings  of  many  well-known  works; 
but,  with  a  few  exceptions,  have  not  thus  profited. 
The  reason  no  doubt  is,  that  in  works  of  art,  beauty 
is  the  chief  object;  and  strongly  contracted  facial 
muscles  destroy  beauty.19  The  story  of  the  composi- 
tion is  generally  told  with  wonderful  force  and  truth  by 
skilfully  given  accessories. 

Fifthly,  it  seemed  to  me  highly  important  to  ascer- 
tain whether  the  same  expressions  and  gestures  prevail,  ' 
as  has  often  been  asserted  without  much  evidence,  with 
all  the  races  of  mankind,  especially  with  those  who 
have  associated  but  little  with  Europeans.  Whenever 
the  same  movements  of  the  features  or  body  express  the 
same  emotions  in  several  distinct  races  of  man,  we  may 
infer  with  much  probability,  that  such  expressions  are 
true  ones, — that  is,  are  innate  or  instinctive.  Con- 
ventional expressions  or  gestures,  acquired  by  the 
individual  during  early  life,  would  probably  have  dif- 
fered in  the  different  races,  in  the  same  manner  as  do 
their  languages.  Accordingly  I  circulated,  early  in 
the  year  1867,  the  following  printed  queries  with  a 
request,  which  has  been  fully  responded  to,  that 
actual  observations,  and  not  memory,  might  be  trusted. 
These  queries  were  written  after  a  considerable  interval 
of  time,  during  which  my  attention  had  been  otherwise 
directed,  and  I  can  now  see  that  they,  might  have  been 
greatly  improved.  To  some  of  the  later  copies,  I 
appended,  in  manuscript,  a  few  additional  remarks : — 

(1.)  Is  astonishment  expressed  by  the  eyes  and  mouth  being  opened 

•wide,  and  by  the  eyebrows  being  raised  ? 
(2.)  Does  shame  excite  a  blush  when  the  colour  of  the  skin  allows 

it  to  be  visible  ?  and  especially  how  low  down  the  body  does 

the  blush  extend  ? 

19  See  remarks  to  this  effect  in  Lessing's  '  Laocoon,'  translated  by 
W.  Boss,  1836,  p.  19. 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

(3.)  When  a  man  is  indignant  or  defiant  does  he  frown,  hold  his 
body  and  head  erect,  square  his  shoulders  and  clench  his  fists  ? 
(4.)  When  considering  deeply  on  any  subject,  or  trying  to  under- 
stand any  puzzle,  does  he  frown,  or  wrinkle  the  skin  beneath 
the  lower  eyelids  ? 

(5.)  When  in  low  spirits,  are  the  corners  of  the  mouth  depressed, 
and  the  inner  corner  of  the  eyebrows  raised  by  that  muscle 
which  the  French  call  the  "  Grief  muscle  "  ?  The  eyebrow 
in  this  state  becomes  slightly  oblique,  with  a  little  swelling 
at  the  inner  end ;  and  the  forehead  is  transversely  wrinkled  in 
the  middle  part,  but  not  across  the  whole  breadth,  as  when 
the  eyebrows  are  raised  in  surprise. 

(6.)  When  in  good  spirits  do  the  eyes  sparkle,  with  the  skin  a  little 
wrinkled  round  and  under  them,  and  with  the  mouth  a  little 
drawn  back  at  the  corners  ? 

^7.)  When  a  man  sneers  or  snarls  at  another,  is  the  corner  of  the 
upper  lip  over  the  canine  or  eye  tooth  raised  on  the  side 
facing  the  man  whom  he  addresses  ? 

(8.)  Can  a  dogged  or  obstinate  expression  be  recognized,  which  ia 
chiefly  shown  by  the  mouth  being  firmly  closed,  a  lowering 
brow  and  a  slight  frown  ? 

(9.)  Is  contempt  expressed  by  a  slight  protrusion  of  the  lips  and  by 
turning  up  the  nose,  with  a  slight  expiration  ? 

(10.)  Is  disgust  shown  by  the  lower  lip  being  turned  down,  the  upper 
lip  slightly  raised,  with  a  sudden  expiration,  something  like 
incipient  vomiting,  or  like  something  spit  out  of  the  mouth  ? 

(11.)  Is  extreme  fear  expressed  in  the  same  general  manner  as  with 
Europeans  ? 

(12.)  Is  laughter  ever  carried  to  such  an  extreme  as  to  bring  tears 
into  the  eyes  ? 

(13.)  When  a  man  wishes  to  show  that  he  cannot  prevent  something 
being  done,  or  cannot  himself  do  something,  does  he  shrug  his 
shoulders,  turn  inwards  his  elbows,  extend  outwards  his  hands 
and  open  the  palms ;  with  the  eyebrows  raised  ? 

(14.)  Do  the  children  when  sulky,  pout  or  greatly  protrude  the  lips  ? 

(15.)  Can  guilty,  or  sly,  or  jealous  expressions  be  recognized?  though 
I  know  not  how  these  can  be  defined. 

(16.)  Is  the  head  nodded  vertically  in  affirmation,  and  shaken  la- 
terally in  negation  ? 

Observations  on  natives  who  have  had  little  communication  with 
Europeans  would  be  of  course  the  most  valuable,  though  those  made  on 
any  natives  would  be  of  much  interest  to  me.  General  remarks  on 
expression  are  of  comparatively  little  value ;  and  memory  is  so  deceptive 
that  I  earnestly  beg  it  may  not  be  trusted.  A  definite  description  of 
the  countenance  under  any  emotion  or  frame  of  mind,  with  a  statement 
of  the  circumstances  under  which  it  occurred,  would  possess  much  value. 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

To  these  queries  1  have  received  thirty-six  answers 
from  different  observers,  several  of  them  missionaries 
or  protectors  of  the  aborigines,  to  all  of  whom  I  am 
deeply  indebted  for  the  great  trouble  which  they  have 
taken,  and  for  the  valuable  aid  thus  received.  I  will 
specify  their  names,  &c.,  towards  the  close  of  this 
chapter,  so  as  not  to  interrupt  my  present  remarks. 
The  answers  relate  to  several  of  the  most  distinct 
and  savage  races  of  man.  In  many  instances,  the 
circumstances  have  been  recorded  under  which  each 
expression  was  observed,  and  the  expression  itself 
described.  In  such  cases,  much  confidence  may  be 
placed  in  the  answers.  When  the  answers  have  been 
simply  yes  or  no,  I  have  always  received  them  with 
caution.  It  follows,  from  the  information  thus  acquired, 
that  the  same  state  of  mind  is  expressed  throughout 
the  world  with  remarkable  uniformity;  and  this  fact 
is  in  itself  interesting  as  evidence  of  the  close  simi- 
larity in  bodily  structure  and  mental  disposition  of  all 
the  races  of  mankind. 

Sixthly,  and  lastly,  I  have  attended,  as  closely  as  I 
could,  to  the  expression  of  the  several  passions  in  some 
of  the  commoner  animals ;  and  this  I  believe  to  be  of 
paramount  importance,  not  of  course  for  deciding  how 
far  in  man  certain  expressions  are  characteristic  of 
certain  states  of  mind,  but  as  affording  the  safest  basis 
for  generalisation  on  the  causes,  or  origin,  of  the  various 
movements  of  Expression.  In  observing  animals,  we  are 
not  so  likely  to  be  biassed  by  our  imagination ;  and  we 
may  feel  safe  that  their  expressions  are  not  conventional. 

From  the  reasons  above  assigned,  namely,  the  fleeting 

nature  of  some  expressions  (the  changes  in  the  features 

being   often  extremely  slight) ;   our  sympathy   being 

easily  aroused  when  we   behold    any  strong  emotion, 

2 


18  INTRODUCTION. 

and  our  attention  thus  distracted;  our  imagination 
deceiving  us,  from  knowing  in  a  vague  manner  what 
to  expect,  though  certainly  few  of  us  know  what  the 
exact  changes  in  the  countenance  are ;  and  lastly,  even 
our  long  familiarity  with  the  subject, — from  all  these 
causes  combined,  the  observation  of  Expression  is  by 
no  means  easy,  as  many  persons,  whom  I  have  asked 
to  observe  certain  points,  have  soon  discovered.  Hence 
it  is  difficult  to  determine,  with  certainty,  what  are 
the  movements  of  the  features  and  of  the  body,  which 
commonly  characterize  certain  states  of  the  mind. 
Nevertheless,  some  of  the  doubts  and  difficulties  have, 
as  I  hope,  been  cleared  away  by  the  observation  of 
infants, — of  \he  insane, — of  the  different  races  of 
man, — 'of  works  of  art, — and  lastly,  of  the  facial 
muscles  under  the  action  of 'galvanism,  as  effected  by 
Dr.  Duchenne. 

But  there  remains  the  much  greater  difficulty  of 
understanding  the  cause  or  origin  of  the  several  ex- 
pressions, and  of  judging  whether  any  theoretical 
explanation  is  trustworthy.  Besides,  judging  as  well 
as  we  can  by  our  reason,  without  the  aid  of  any  rules, 
which  of  two  or  more  explanations  is  the  most  satis- 
factory, or  are  quite  unsatisfactory,  I  see  only  one  way 
of  testing  our  conclusions.  This  is  to  observe  whether 
the  same  principle  by  which  one  expression  can,  as  it 
appears,  be  explained,  is  applicable  in  other  allied 
cases ;  and  especially,  whether  the  same  general  prin- 
ciples can  be  applied  with  satisfactory  results,  both  to 
man  and  the  lower  animals.  This  latter  method,  I 
am  inclined  to  think,  is  the  most  serviceable  of  all. 
The  difficulty  of  judging  of  the  truth  of  any  theoretical 
explanation,  and  of  testing  it  by  some  distinct  line  of 
investigation,  is  the  great  drawback  to  that  interest 
which  the  studv  seems  well  fitted  to  excite. 


INTKODUCTION.  19 

Filially,  with  respect  to  my  own  observations,  I  may 
state  that  they  were  commenced  in  the  year  1838 ; 
and,  from  that  time  to  the  present  day,  I  have  occa- 
sionally attended  to  the  subject.  At  the  above  date, 
I  was  already  inclined  to  believe  in  the  principle  of 
evolution,  or  of  the  derivation  of  species  from  other  and 
lower  forms.  Consequently,  when  I  read  Sir  C.  Bell's 
great  work,  his  view,  that  man  had  been  created  with 
certain  muscles  specially  adapted  for  the  expression  of 
his  feelings,  struck  me  as  unsatisfactory.  It  seemed 
probable  that  the  habit  of  expressing  our  feelings  by 
certain  movements,  though  now  rendered  innate,  had 
been  in  some  manner  gradually  acquired.  But  to  dis- 
cover how  such  habits  had  been  acquired  was  perplexing 
in  no  small  degree.  The  whole  subject  had  to  be 
viewed  under  a  new  aspect,  and  each  expression  de- 
manded a  rational  explanation.  This  belief  led  me  to 
attempt  the  present  work,  however  imperfectly  it  may 
have  been  executed. 


1  will  now  give  the  names  of  the  gentlemen  to  whom, 
as  I  have  said,  I  am  deeply  indebted  for  information  in 
regard  to  the  expressions  exhibited  by  various  races  of 
man,  and  I  will  specify  some  of  the  circumstances  under 
which  the  observations  were  in  each  case  made.  Owing 
to  the  great  kindness  and  powerful  influence  of  Mr. 
Wilson,  of  Hayes  Place,  Kent,  I  have  received  from 
Australia  no  less  than  thirteen  sets  of  answers  to  my 
queries.  This  has  been  particularly  fortunate,  as  the 
Australian  aborigines  rank  amongst  the  most  distinct  of 
all  the  races  of  man.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  observa- 
tions have  been  chiefly  made  in  the  south,  in  the  out- 
lying parts  of  the  colony  of  Victoria ;  but  some  excel- 
lent answers  have  been  received  from  the  north. 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

Mr.  Dyson  Lacy  has  given  me  in  detail  some  valu- 
able observations,  made  several  hundred  miles  in  the 
interior  of  Queensland.  To  Mr.  E.  Brough  Smyth, 
of  Melbourne,  I  am  much  indebted  for  observations  made 
by  himself,  and  for  sending  me  several  of  the  following 
letters,  namely : — From  the  Eev.  Mr.  Hagenauer,  of 
Lake  Wellington,  a  missionary  in  Gippsland,  Victoria, 
who  has  had  much  experience  with  the  natives.  From 
Mr.  Samuel  Wilson,  a  landowner,  residing  at  Langere- 
nong,  Wimmera,  Victoria.  From  the  Rev.  George 
Taplin,  superintendent  of  the  native  Industrial  Settle- 
ment at  Port  Macleay.  From  Mr.  Archibald  G.  Lang, 
of  Coranderik,  Victoria,  a  teacher  at  a  school  where 
aborigines,  old  and  young,  are  collected  from  all  parts 
of  the  colony.  From  Mr.  H.  B.  Lane,  of  Belfast,  Vic- 
toria, a  police  magistrate  and  warden,  whose  observa- 
tions, as  I  am  assured,  are  highly  trustworthy.  From 
Mr.  Templeton  Bannett,  of  Echuca,  whose  station  is  on 
the  borders  of  the  colony  of  Victoria,  and  who  has  thus 
been  able  to  observe  many  aborigines  who  have  had 
little  intercourse  with  white  men.  He  compared  his 
observations  with  those  made  by  two  other  gentlemen 
long  resident  in  the  neighbourhood.  Also  from  Mr.  J. 
Bulmer,  a  missionary  in  a  remote  part  of  Gippsland, 
Victoria. 

I  am  also  indebted  to  the  distinguished  botanist,  Dr. 
Ferdinand  Muller,  of  Victoria,  for  some  observations 
made  by  himself,  and  for  sending  me  others  made 
by  Mrs.  Green,  as  well  as  for  some  of  the  foregoing 
letters. 

In  regard  to  the  Maoris  of  New  Zealand,  the  Eev. 
J.  W.  Stack  has  answered  only  a  few  of  my  queries ; 
but  the  answers  have  been  remarkably  full,  clear,  and 
distinct,  with  the  circumstances  recorded  under  which 
the  observations  were  made. 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

The  Kajah  Brooke  lias  given  me  some  information 
with  respect  to  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo. 

Kespecting  the  Malays,  I  have  been  highly  successful ; 
for  Mr.  F.  Geach  (to  whom  I  was  introduced  by  Mr. 
Wallace),  during  his  residence  as  a  mining  engineer  in 
the  interior  of  Malacca,  observed  many  natives,  who  had 
never  before  associated  with  white  men.  He  wrote  me 
two  long  letters  with  admirable  and  detailed  observa- 
tions on  their  expression.  He  likewise  observed  the 
Chinese  immigrants  in  the  Malay  archipelago. 

The  well-known  naturalist,  H.M.  Consul,  Mr.  Swinhoe, 
also  observed  for  me  the  Chinese  in  their  native  country ; 
and  he  made  inquiries  from  others  whom  he  could 
trust. 

In  India  Mr.  H.  Erskine,  whilst  residing  in  his  official 
capacity  in  the  Admednugur  District  in  the  Bombay 
Presidency,  attended  to  the  expression  of  the  inhabitants, 
but  found  much  difficulty  in  arriving  at  any  safe  con- 
clusions, owing  to  their  habitual  concealment  of  all 
emotions  in  the  presence  of  Europeans.  He  also 
obtained  information  for  me  from  Mr.  West,  the  Judge 
in  Canara,  and  he  consulted  some  intelligent  native 
gentlemen  on  certain  points.  In  Calcutta  Mr.  J.  Scott, 
curator  of  the  Botanic  Gardens,  carefully  observed  the 
various  tribes  of  men  therein  employed  during  a  con- 
siderable period,  and  no  one  has  sent  me  such  full  and 
valuable  details.  The  habit  of  accurate  observation, 
gained  by  his  botanical  studies,  has  been  brought  to 
bear  on  our  present  subject.  For  Ceylon  I  am  much 
indebted  to  the  Rev.  8.  0.  Glenie  for  answers  to  some 
of  my  queries. 

Turning  to  Africa,  I  have  been  unfortunate  with 
respect  to  the  negroes,  though  Mr.  Winwood  Keade 
aided  me  as  far  as  lay  in  his  power.  It  would  have  been 
comparatively  easy  to  have  obtained  information  in 


22  INTRODUCTION. 

regard  to  the  negro  slaves  in  America ;  but  as  they  have 
long  associated  with  white  men,  such  observations  would 
have  possessed  little  value.  In  the  southern  parts  of 
the  continent  Mrs.  Barber  observed  the  Kafirs  and 
Fiugoes,  and  sent  me  many  distinct  answers.  Mr.  J.  P. 
Mansel  Weale  also  made  some  observations  on  the 
natives,  and  procured  for  me  a  curious  document,  namely, 
the  opinion,  written  in  English,  of  Christian  Gaika, 
brother  of  the  Chief  Sandilli,  on  the  expressions  of  his 
fellow-countrymen.  In  the  northern  regions  of  Africa 
Captain  Speedy,  who  long  resided  with  the  Abyssinians, 
answered  my  queries  partly  from  memory  and  partly 
from  observations  made  on  the  son  of  King  Theodore, 
who  was  then  under  his  charge.  Professor  and  Mrs. 
Asa  Gray  attended  to  some  points  in  the  expressions  of 
the  natives,  as  observed  by  them  whilst  ascending  the 
Nile. 

On  the  great  American  continent  Mr.  Bridges,  a 
catechist  residing  with  the  Fuegians,  answered  some 
few  questions  about  their  expression,  addressed  to  him 
many  years  ago.  In  the  northern  half  of  the  con- 
tinent Dr.  Kothrock  attended  to  the  expressions  of  the 
wild  Atnah  and  Espy  ox  tribes  on  the  Nasse  Kiver,  in 
North-Western  America.  Mr.  Washington  Matthews, 
Assistant-Surgeon  in  the  United  States  Army,  also  ob- 
served with  special  care  (after  having  seen  my  queries, 
as  printed  in  the  '  Smithsonian  Eeport ')  some  of  the 
wildest  tribes  in  the  Western  parts  of  the  United  States, 
namely,  the  Tetons,  Grosventres,  Mandans,  and  Assina- 
boines;  and  his  answers  have  proved  of  the  highest 
value. 

Lastly,  besides  these  special  sources  of  information,  I 
have  collected  some  few  facts  incidentally  given  in 
books  of  travels. 


INTRODUCTION.  23 

As  I  shall  often  have  to  refer,  more  especially  in  the 
latter  part  of  this  volume,  to  the  muscles  of  the  human 
face,  I  have  had  a  diagram  (tig.  1)  copied  and  reduced  from 
Sir  0.  Bell's  work,  and  two  others,  with  more  accurate  de- 
tails (figs.  2  and  3),  from  Henle's  well-known  '  Handbuch 
der  Systematischen  Anatomie  des  Menschen.'   The  same 
letters  refer  to  the  same  muscles  in  all  three  figures,  but 
the  names  are  given  of  only  the  more  important  ones  to 
which  I  shall  have  to  allude.     The  facial  muscles  blend 
much  together,  and,  as  I  am  informed,  hardly  appear 
on  a  dissected  face  so  distinct  as  they  are  here  repre- 
sented.    Some  writers  consider  that  these  muscles  con-   , 
sist  of  nineteen  pairs,  with  one  unpaired ; 20  but  others  / 
make  the  number  much  larger,   amounting  even   to 
fifty-five,  according  to  Moreau.     They  are,  as  is  ad-  ) 
mitted  by  everyone  who  has  written  on  the  subject, 
very  variable  in  structure ;  and  Moreau  remarks  that 
they  are  hardly  alike  in  half-a-dozen  subjects.21     They 
are  also  variable  in  function.     Thus  the  power  of  un-  \ 
covering  the  canine  tooth  on  one  side  differs  much  in  / 
different  persons.     The  power  of  raising  the  wings  of 
the  nostrils  is  also,  according  to  Dr.  Piderit, 22  variable 
in  a  remarkable  degree ;  and  other  such  cases  could  be 
given. 

Finally,  I  must  have  the  pleasure  of  expressing 
my  obligations  to  Mr.  Kejlander  for  the  trouble  which 
he  has  taken  in  photographing  for  me  various  expressions 
and  gestures.  I  am  also  indebted  toHerrKindermann, 
of  Hamburg,  for  the  loan  of  some  excellent  negatives  of 
crying  infants ;  and  to  Dr.  Wallich  for  a  charming  one 

20  Mr.  Partridge  in  Todd's  *  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,' 
vol.  ii.  p.  227. 

21  '  La  Physionomie,'  par  G.  Lavater,  torn.  iv.  1820,  p.  274.    On  the 
number  of  the  facial  muscles,  see  vol.  iv.  pp.  209-211. 

>J2  •  Mimik  und  Physiognomik,'  1867,  s.  91. 


24 


INTRODUCTION, 


Fig.  1.    Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  face,  from  Sir  C.  Bell. 


Fig.  2.     Diagram  from  Henle. 


INTRODUCTION. 


25 


Fig.  3.    Diagram  from  Henle. 


A.  Occipito-frontalis,  or  frontal  muscle. 

B.  Corrugator  tmpercilii,  or  corrugator 
muscle. 

c.  Orbicular!  s  palpebrarum,  or  orbicu- 
lar muscles  of  the  eyes. 

D.  Pyramidalis  nasi,  or  pyramidal 
muscle  of  the  nose. 

K.  Levator  labii  superioris  alreque  nasi. 

F.  Levator  labii  proprius. 


G.  Zygomatic. 

H.  Malaris. 

I.  Little  zygomatic. 

K.  Triangularis  oria,  or  depressor  an- 
guli  oris. 

L.  Quadratus  mentl. 

M.  Risorius,  part  -of  the  Platysma 
myoides. 


of  a  smiling  girl.  I  have  already  expressed  my  obliga- 
tions to  Dr.  Duchenne  for  generously  permitting  me  to 
have  some  of  his  large  photographs  copied  and  reduced. 
All  these  photographs  have  been  printed  by  the  Helio- 
type  process,  and  the  accuracy  of  the  copy  is  thus 
guaranteed.  These  plates  are  referred  to  by  Roman 
numerals. 

I  am  also  greatly  indebted  to  Mr.  T.  W.  Wood  for 
the  extreme  pains  which  he  has  taken  in  drawing  from 


26  INTRODUCTION. 

life  the  expressions  of  various  animals.  A  distinguished 
artist,  Mr.  Kiviere,  has  had  the  kindness  to  give  me  two 
drawings  of  dogs — one  in  a  hostile  and  the  other  in  a 
humble  and  caressing  frame  of  mind.  Mr.  A.  May  has 
also  given  me  two  similar  sketches  of  dogs.  Mr.  Cooper 
has  taken  much  care  in  cutting  the  blocks.  Some 
of  the  photographs  and  drawings,  namely,  those  by 
Mr.  May,  and  those  by  Mr.  Wolf  of  the  Cynopithecus, 
were  first  reproduced  by  Mr.  Cooper  on  wood  by  means 
of  photography,  and  then  engraved:  by  this  means 
almost  complete  fidelity  is  ensured. 


CHAPTEK   I. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  EXPRESSION. 

The  three  chief  principles  stated  —  The  first  principle  —  Serviceable 
actions  become  habitual  in  association  with  certain  states  of  the 
mind,  and  are  performed  whether  or  not  of  service  in  each  par- 
ticular case  —  The  force  of  habit  —  Inheritance  —  Associated 
habitual  movements  in  man  —  Reflex  actions  —  Passage  of  habits 
into  reflex  actions  —  Associated  habitual  movements  in  the  lower 
animals  —  Concluding  remarks. 

I  WILL  begin  by  giving  the  three  Principles,  which 
appear  to  me  to  account  for  most  of  the  expressions 
and  gestures  involuntarily  used  by  man  and  the  lower 
animals,  under  the  influence  of  various  emotions  and 
sensations.1  I  arrived,  however,  at  these  three  Prin- 
ciples only  at  the  close  of  my  observations.  They 
will  be  discussed  in  the  present  and  two  following 
chapters  in  a  general  manner.  Facts  observed  both 
with  man  and  the  lower  animals  will  here  be  made  use 
of;  but  the  latter  facts  are  preferable,  as  less  likely 
to  deceive  us.  In  the  fourth  and  fifth  chapters,  I  will 
describe  the  special  expressions  of  some  of  the  lower 
animals  ;  and  in  the  succeeding  chapters  those  of  man. 
Everyone  will  thus  be  able  to  judge  for  himself,  how 
far  my  three  principles  throw  light  on  the  theory  of 
the  subject.  It  appears  to  me  that  so  many  expres- 
sions are  thus  explained  in  a  fairly  satisfactory  manner, 


1  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  ('Essays,'  Second  Series,  1863,  p.  138)  has 
drawn  a  clear  distinction  between  emotions  and  sensations,  the  latter 
being  "  generated  in  our  corporeal  framework."  He  classes  as  Feelings 
both  emotions  and  sensations. 


28  THE   PRINCIPLE   OF  CHAP.  I. 

that  probably  all  will  hereafter  be  found  to  come  under 
the  same  or  closely  analogous  heads.  I  need  hardly 
premise  that  movements  or  changes  in  any  part  of  the 
body, — as  the  wagging  of  a  dog's  tail,  the  drawing 
back  of  a  horse's  ears,  the  shrugging  of  a  man's  shoul- 
ders, or  the  dilatation  of  the  capillary  vessels  of  the 
skin, — may  all  equally  well  serve  for  expression.  The 
three  Principles  are  as  follows. 

I.  The  principle  of  serviceable  associated  Habits. — 
Certain  complex  actions  are  of  direct  or  indirect  ser- 
vice under  certain  states  of  the  mind,  in  order  to  relieve 
or  gratify  certain  sensations,  desires,  &c. ;  and  when- 
ever the  same  state  of  mind  is  induced,  however  feebly, 
there  is   a   tendency  through  the  force  of  habit  and 
association  for  the  same  movements  to  be  performed, 
though  they  may  not  then  be  of  the  least  use.     Some 
actions  ordinarily  associated  through  habit  with  certain 
states  of  the  mind  may  be  partially  repressed  through 
the  will,  and  in  such  cases  the  muscles  which  are  least 
under  the  separate   control  of  the  will  are  the  most 
liable  still  to  act,  causing  movements  which  we  recog- 
nise as  expressive.     In  certain  other  cases  the  checking 
of  one  habitual  movement  requires  other  slight  move- 
ments ;   and  these  are  likewise  expressive. 

II.  The  principle  of  Antithesis. — Certain  states  of  the 
mind  lead  to  certain  habitual  actions,  which  are   of 
service,   as  under   our   first  principle.     Now   when  a 
directly  opposite  state   of  mind  is  induced,  there  is 
a  strong  and  involuntary  tendency  to  the  performance 
of  movements  of  a   directly  opposite   nature,  though 
these  are  of  no  use ;  and  such  movements  are  in  some 
cases  highly  expressive. 

III.  The  principle  of  actions  due  to  the  constitution  of 
the  Nervous  System,  independently  from  the  first  of  the 
Will,  and  independently  to  a  certain  extent  of  Habit. — 


CEAP.  I.         SERVICEABLE   ASSOCIATED   HABITS.  29 

When  the  sensorium  is  strongly  excited,  nerve-force 
is  generated  in  excess,  and  is  transmitted  in  certain 
definite  directions,  depending  on  the  connection  of 
the  nerve-cells,  and  partly  on  habit :  or  the  supply  of 
nerve-force  may,  as  it  appears,  be  interrupted.  Effects 
are  thus  produced  which  we  recognise  as  expressive. 
This  third  principle  may,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  be 
called  that  of  the  direct  action  of  the  nervous  system. 

With  respect  to  our  first  Principle,  it  is  notorious 
how  powerful  is  the  force  of  habit.  The  most  complex 
and  difficult  movements  can  in  time  be  performed  with- 
out the  least  effort  or  consciousness.  It  is  not  posi- 
tively known  how  it  comes  that  habit  is  so  efficient 
in  facilitating  complex  movements;  but  physiologists 
admit2  "that  the  conducting  power  of  the  nervous 
"  fibres  increases  with  the  frequency  of  their  excite- 
"  ment."  This  applies  to  the  nerves  of  motion  and 
sensation,  as  well  as  to  those  connected  with  the  act' 
of  thinking.  That  some  physical  change  is  produced 
in  the  nerve-cells  or  nerves  which  are  habitually  used 
can  hardly  be  doubted,  for  otherwise  it  is  impossible  to 
understand  how  the  tendency  to  certain  acquired  move- 
ments is  inherited.  That  they  are  inherited  we  see 
with  horses  in  certain  transmitted  paces,  such  as  can- 
tering and  ambling,  which  are  not  natural  to  them, — 
in  the  pointing  of  young  pointers  and  the  setting  of 
young  setters — in  the  peculiar  manner  of  flight  of  cer- 
tain breeds  of  the  pigeon,  &c.  We  have  analogous 
cases  with  mankind  in  the  inheritance  of  tricks  or 
unusual  gestures,  to  which  we  shall  presently  recur. 


2  Muller,  '  Elements  of  Physiology,'  Eng.  translat.  vol.  ii.  p.  939. 
See  also  Mr.  H.  Spencer's  interesting  speculations  on  the  same  subject, 
and  on  the  genesis  of  nerves,  in  his  '  Principles  of  Biology,'  vol.  ii. 
p.  346  ;  and  in  his  '  Principles  of  Psychology,'  2nd  edit.  pp.  511-557. 


30  THE   PRINCIPLE   OF  CHAP.  I. 

To  those  who  admit  the  gradual  evolution  of  species, 
a  most  striking  instance  of  the  perfection  with  which 
the  most  difficult  consensual  movements  can  be  trans- 
mitted, is  afforded  by  the  humming-bird  Sphinx-moth 
(Macroglossa)  ;  for  this  moth,  shortly  after  its  emer- 
gence from  the  cocoon,  as  shown  by  the  bloom  on  its 
unruffled  scales,  may  be  seen  poised  stationary  in  the 
air,  with  its  long  hair-like  proboscis  uncurled  and  in- 
serted into  the  minute  orifices  of  flowers  ;  and  no  one, 
I  believe,  has  ever  seen  this  moth  learning  to  perform 
its  difficult  task,  which. requires  such  unerring  airn. 

When  there  exists  an  inherited  or  instinctive  ten- 
dency to  the  performance  of  an  action,  or  an  in- 
herited taste  for  certain  kinds  of  food,  some  degree  of 
habit  in  the  individual  is  often  or  generally  requisite. 
We  find  this  in  the  paces  of  the  horse,  and  to  a  certain 
extent  in  the  pointing  of  dogs  ;  although  some  young 
dogs  point  excellently  the  first  time  they  are  taken 
out,  yet  they  often  associate  the  proper  inherited 
attitude  with  a  wrong  odour,  and  even  with  eyesight.  I 
have  heard  it  asserted  that  if  a  calf  be  allowed  to 
suck  its  mother  only  once,  it  is  much  more  diffi- 
cult afterwards  to  rear  it  by  hand.3  Caterpillars 
which  have  been  fed  on  the  leaves  of  one  kind  of 
tree,  have  been  known  to  perish  from  hunger  rather 
than  to  eat  the  leaves  of  another  tree,  although  this 
afforded  them  their  proper  food,  under  a  state  of 
nature  ;  4  and  so  it  is  in  many  other  cases. 


3  A  remark  to  much  the  same  effect  was  made  long  ago  by  Hippo- 
crates and  by  the  illustrious  Harvey ;  for  both  assert  that  a  young 
animal  forgets  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  the  art  of  sucking,  and 
cannot  without  some  difficulty  again  acquire  it.     I  give  these  assertions 
on  the  authority  of  Dr.  Darwin,  '  Zoonomia,'  1794,  vol.  i.  p.  140. 

4  See  for  my  authorities,  and  for  various  analogous  facts,   '  The 
Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,'  1868,  vol.  ii. 
p.  304. 


CHAP.  I.         SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED   HABITS.  31 

The  power  of  Association  is  admitted  by  everyone. 
Mr.  Bain  remarks,  that  "  actions,  sensations,  and  states 
"  of  feeling,  occurring  together  or  in  close  succession, 
"  tend  to  grow  together,  or  cohere,  in  such  a  way  that 
"  when  any  one  of  them  is  afterwards  presented  to  the 
"  mind,  the  others  are  apt  to  be  brought  up  in  Mea."  6 
It  is  so  important  for  our  purpose  fully  to  recognise  that 
actions  readily  become  associated  with  other  actions 
and  with  various  states  of  the  mind,  that  I  will  give  a 
good  many  instances,  in  the  first  place  relating  to  man, 
and  afterwards  to  the  lower  animals.  Some  of  the 
instances  are  of  a  very  trifling  nature,  but  they  are  as 
good  for  our  purpose  as  more  important  habits.  It  is 
known  to  everyone  how  difficult,  or  even  impossible  it 
is,  without  repeated  trials,  to  move  the  limbs  in  certain 
opposed  directions  which  have  never  been  practised. 
Analogous  cases  occur  with  sensations,  as  in  the  com- 
mon experiment  of  rolling  a  marble  beneath  the  tips 
of  two  crossed  fingers,  when  it  feels  exactly  like  two 
marbles.  Everyone  protects  himself  when  falling  to 
the  ground  by  extending  his  arms,  and  as  Professor 
Alison  has  remarked,  few  can  resist  acting  thus,  when 
voluntarily  falling  on  a  soft  bed.  A  man  when  going 
out  of  doors  puts  on  his  gloves  quite  unconsciously ; 
and  this  may  seem  an  extremely  simple  operation,  but 
he  who  has  taught  a  child  to  put  on  gloves,  knows  that 
this  is  by  no  means  the  case. 

When  our  minds  are  much  affected,  so  are  the  move- 
ments of  our  bodies;  but  here  another  principle  be- 


8  'The  Senses  and  the  Intellect,'  2nd  edit.  1864,  p.  332.  Prof. 
Huxley  remarks  ('  Elementary  Lessons  in  Physiology,'  5th  edit.  1872, 
p.  306),  "  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule,  that,  if  any  two  mental  states 
"  be  called  up  together,  or  in  succession,  with  due  frequency  and  vivid- 
a  ness,  the  subsequent  production  of  the  one  of  them  will  suffice  to  call 
"  up  the  other,  and  that  whether  we  desire  it  or  not." 


32  THE  PRINCIPLE   OF  CHAP.  I. 

sides  habit,  namely  the  undirected  overflow  of  nerve- 
force,  partially  comes  into  play.  Norfolk,  in  speaking 
of  Cardinal  Wolsey,  says — 

"  Some  strange  commotion 
Is  in  his  brain ;  he  bites  his  lip  and  starts  ; 
Stops  on  a  sudden,  looks  upon  the  ground, 
Then,  lays  his  finger  on  his  temple  :  straight, 
Springs  out  into  fast  gait ;  then,  stops  again, 
Strikes  his  breast  hard  ;  and  anon,  he  casts 
His  eye  against  the  moon :  in  most  strange  postures 
We  have  seen  him  set  himself." — Hen.  VIJ1.,  act  3,  sc.  2. 

A  vulgar  man  often  scratches  his  head  when  per- 
plexed in  mind ;  and  I  believe  that  he  acts  thus  from 
habit,  as  if  he  experienced  a  slightly  uncomfortable 
bodily  sensation,  namely,  the  itching  of  his  head,  to 
which  he  is  particularly  liable,  and  which  he  thus  re- 
lieves. Another  man  rubs  his  eyes  when  perplexed,  or 
gives  a  little  cough  when  embarrassed,  acting  in  either 
case  as  if  he  felt  a  slightly  uncomfortable  sensation  in 
his  eyes  or  windpipe.6 

From  the  continued  use  of  the  eyes,  these  organs 
are  especially  liable  to  be  acted  on  through  association 
under  various  states  of  the  mind,  although  there  is  mani- 
festly nothing  to  be  seen.  A  man,  as  Gratiolet  remarks, 
who  vehemently  rejects  a  proposition,  will  almost  cer- 
tainly shut  his  eyes  or  turn  away  his  face ;  but  if  he 
accepts  the  proposition,  he  will  nod  his  head  in  affirma- 
tion and  open  his  eyes  widely.  The  man  acts  in  this 
latter  case  as  if  he  clearly  saw  the  thing,  and  in  the 
former  case  as  if  he  did  not  or  would  not  see  it.  I 
have  noticed  that  persons  in  describing  a  horrid  sight 
often  shut  their  eyes  momentarily  and  firmly,  or  shake 

6  Gratiolet  ('  De  la  Physionomie,'  p.  324),  in  his  discussion  on 
this  subject,  gives  many  analogous  instances.  See  p.  42,  on  the  opening 
find  shutting  of  the  eyes.  Engel  is  quoted  (p.  323)  on  the  changed 
paces  of  a  man,  as  his  thoughts  change. 


CHAP.  I.         SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  33 

their  heads,  as  if  not  to  see  or  to  drive  away  some- 
thing disagreeable ;  and  I  have  caught  myself,  when 
thinking  in  the  dark  of  a  horrid  spectacle,  closing 
my  eyes  firmly.  In  looking  suddenly  at  any  object, 
or  in  looking  all  around,  everyone  raises  his  eyebrows, 
so  that  the  eyes  may  be  quickly  and  widely  opened ; 
and  Duchenne  remarks  that 7  a  person  in  trying  to 
remember  something  often  raises  his  eyebrows,  as  if  to 
see  it.  A  Hindoo  gentleman  made  exactly  the  same 
remark  to  Mr.  Erskine  in  regard  to  his  countrymen. 
I  noticed  a  young  lady  earnestly  trying  to  recollect 
a  painter's  name,  and  she  first  looked  to  one  corner  of 
the  ceiling  and  then  to  the  opposite  corner,  arching 
the  one  eyebrow  on  that  side ;  although,  of  course,  there 
was  nothing  to  be  seen  there. 

In  most  of  the  foregoing  cases,  we  can  understand  how 
the  associated  movements  were  acquired  through  habit ; 
but  with  some  individuals,  certain  strange  gestures  or 
tricks  have  arisen  in  association  with  certain  states  of 
the  mind,  owing  to  wholly  inexplicable  causes,  and  are 
undoubtedly  inherited.  I  have  elsewhere  given  one 
instance  from  my  own  observation  of  an  extraordinary 
and  complex  gesture,  associated  with  pleasurable  feel- 
ings, which  was  transmitted  from  a  father  to  his 
daughter,  as  well  as  some  other  analogous  facts.8 

1  '  Me'canisme  de  la  Physiortomie  Humaine,'  1862,  p.  17. 

8  '  The  Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication/  vol. 
ii.  p.  6.  The  inheritance  of  habitual  gestures  is  so  important  for  us, 
that  I  gladly  avail  myself  of  Mr.  F.  Galton's  permission  to  give  in  his 
own  words  the  following  remarkable  case : — u  The  following  account 
*'  of  a  habit  occurring  in  individuals  of  three  consecutive  generations  is 
"  of  peculiar  interest,  because  it  occurs  only  during  sound  sleep,  and 
u  therefore  cannot  be  due  to  imitation,  but  must  be  altogether  natural. 
"  The  particulars  are  perfectly  trustworthy,  for  I  have  enquired  fully 
"  into  them,  and  speak  from  abundant  and  independent  evidence.  A 
"  gentleman  of  considerable  position  was  found  by  his  wife  to  have 
"  the  curious  trick,  when  he  lay  fast  asleep  on  his  back  in  bed,  of 


34  THE   PRINCIPLE  OF  CHAP.  I. 

Another  curious  instance  of  an  odd  inherited  move- 
ment, associated  with  the  wish  to  obtain  an  object,  will 
be  given  in  the  course  of  this  volume. 

There  are  other  actions  which  are  commonly  per- 
formed under  certain  circumstances,  independently  of 
habit,  and  which  seem  to  be  due  to  imitation  or  some 
sort  of  sympathy.  Thus  persons  cutting  anything 
with  a  pair  of  scissors  may  be  seen  to  move  their 
jaws  simultaneously  with  the  blades  of  the  scissors. 
Children  learning  to  write  often  twist  about  their 
tongues  as  their  fingers  move,  in  a  ridiculous  fashion. 
When  a  public  singer  suddenly  becomes  a  little  hoarse, 
many  of  those  present  may  be  heard,  as  I  have  been 

"  raising  bis  right  arm  slowly  in  front  of  his  face,  up  to  his  forehead, 
"  and  then  dropping  it  with  a  jerk.  BO  that  the  wrist  fell  heavily  on 
"  the  bridge  of  his  nose.  The  trick  did  not  occur  every  night,  but 
"  occasionally,  and  was  independent  of  any  ascertained  cause.  Some- 
"  times  it  was  repeated  incessantly  for  an  hour  or  more.  The  gentle- 
"  man's  nose  was  prominent,  and  its  bridge  often  became  sore  from  the 
"  blows  which  it  received.  At  one  time  an  awkward  sore  was  pro- 
"  duced,  that  was  long  in  healing,  on  account  of  the  recurrence,  n  ght 
•*  after  night,  of  the  blows  which  first  caused  it.  His  wife  had  to  remove 
•'  the  button  from  the  wrist  of  his  night-gown  as  it  made  severe  scratches, 
"  and  some  means  were  attempted  of  tying  his  arm. 

''  Many  years  after  his  death,  his  son  married  a  lady  who  had  never 
"  heard  of  the  family  incident.  She,  however,  observed  precisely  the 
"  same  peculiarity  in  her  husband ;  but  his  nose,  from  not  being  par- 
"  iicularly  prominent,  has  never  as  yet  suffered  from  the  blows.  The 
"  trick  does  not  occur  when  he  is  half-asleep,  as,  for  example,  when 
"  dozing  in  his  arm-chair,  but  the  moment  he  is  fast  asleep  it  is 
"  apt  to  begin.  It  is,  as  with  his  father,  intermittent ;  sometimes 
"  ceasing  for  many  nights,  and  sometimes  almost  incessant  during  a  part 
"  of  every  night.  It  is  performed,  as  it  was  by  his  father,  with  his  right 
"  hand. 

"  One  of  his  children,  a  girl,  has  inherited  the  same  trick.  She  per- 
"  forms  it,  likewise,  with  the  right  hand,  but  in  a  slightly  modified 
"  form ;  for,  after  raising  the  arm,  she  does  not  allow  the  wrist  to  drop 
"  upon  the  bridge  of  the  nose,  but  the  palm  of  the  half-closed  hand 
"  falls  over  and  down  the  nose,  striking  it  rather  rapidly.  It  is  also 
"  very  intermittent  with  this  child,  not  occurring  for  periods  of  some 
"  months,  but  sometimes  occurring  almost  inoess;  ntly." 


CHAP.  I.          SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED   HABITS.  35 

assured  by  a  gentleman  on  whom  I  can  rely,  to  clear 
their  throats ;  but  here  habit  probably  comes  into  play, 
as  we  clear  our  own  throats  under  similar  circumstances. 
I  have  also  been  told  that  at  leaping  matches,  as  the 
performer  makes  his  spring,  many  of  the  spectators, 
generally  men  and  boys,  move  their  feet;  but  here 
again  habit  probably  comes  into  play,  for  it  is  very 
doubtful  whether  women  would  thus  act. 

Reflex  actions. — Eeflex  actions,  in  the  strict  sense  of 
the  term,  are  due  to  the  excitement  of  a  peripheral 
nerve,  which  transmits  its  influence  to  certain  nerve- 
cells,  and  these  in  their  turn  excite  certain  muscles  or 
glands  into  action ;  and  all  this  may  take  place  without 
any  sensation  or  consciousness  on  our  part,  though  often 
thus  accompanied.  As  many  reflex  actions  are  highly 
expressive,  the  subject  must  here  be  noticed  at  some 
little  length.  We  shall  also  see  that  some  of  them 
graduate  into,  and  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from 
actions  which  have  arisen  through  habit. 9  Coughing 
and  sneezing  are  familiar  instances  of  reflex  actions. 
With  infants  the  first  act  of  respiration  is  often  a  sneeze, 
although  this  requires  the  co-ordinated  movement  of 
numerous  muscles.  Respiration  is  partly  voluntary,  but 
mainly  reflex,  and  is  performed  in  the  most  natural  and 
best  manner  without  the  interference  of  the  will.  A  vast 
number  of  complex  movements  are  reflex.  As  good  an 
instance  as  can  be  given  is  the  often-quoted  one  of  a 
decapitated  frog,  which  cannot  of  course  feel,  and  cannot 

•  Prof.  Huxley  remarks  ('Elementary  Physiology,'  5th  edit.  p.  305) 
that  reflex  actions  proper  to  the  spinal  cord  are  natural ;  but,  by  the 
help  of  the  brain,  that  is  through  habit,  an  infinity  of  artificial  reflex 
actions  may  be  acquired.  Virchow  admits  ('  Sammlung  wissenschaft. 
Vortrage/  &c.,  "  Ueber  das  Ruckenmark,"  1871,  ss.  24,  31)  that 
some  reflex  actions  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  instincts ;  and,  of 
the  latter,  it  may  be  added,  some  cannot  be  distinguiahed  from  in- 
herited habits. 


36  THE   PRINCIPLE   OF  CHAP.  1 

consciously  perform,  any  movement.  Yet  if  a  drop  of 
acid  be  placed  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  thigh  of  a 
frog  in  this  state,  it  will  rub  off  the  drop  with  the  upper 
surface  of  the  foot  of  the  same  leg.  If  this  foot  be 
cut  off,  it  cannot  thus  act.  "  After  some  fruitless  efforts, 
'*  therefore,  it  gives  up  trying  in  that  way,  seems 
"  restless,  as  though,  says  Pfliiger,  it  was  seeking  some 
"  other  way,  and  at  last  it  makes  use  of  the  foot  of  the 
"  other  leg  and  succeeds  in  rubbing  off  the  acid.  Notably 
"  we  have  here  not  merely  contractions  of  muscles,  but 
"  combined  and  harmonized  contractions  in  due  sequence 
"  for  a  special  pnrpose.  These  are  actions  that  have 
"  all  the  appearance  of  being  guided  by  intelligence  and 
"  instigated  by  will  in  an  animal,  the  recognized  organ 
"  of  whose  intelligence  and  will  has  been  removed." 10 

We  see  the  difference  between  reflex  and  voluntary 
movements  in  very  young  children  not  being  able 
to  perform,  as  I  am  informed  by  Sir  Henry  Holland, 
certain  acts  somewhat  analogous  to  those  of  sneezing 
and  coughing,  namely,  in  their  not  being  able  to  blow 
their  noses  (i.  e.  to  compress  the  nose  and  blow  violently 
through  the  passage),  and  in  their  not  being  able  to  clear 
their  throats  of  phlegm.  They  have  to  learn  to  perform 
these  acts,  yet  they  are  performed  by  us,  when  a  little 
older,  almost  as  easily  as  reflex  actions.  Sneezing 
and  coughing,  however,  can  be  controlled  by  the  will 
only  partially  or  not  at  all;  whilst  the  clearing  the 
throat  and  blowing  the  nose  are  completely  under  our 
command. 

When  we  are  conscious  of  the  presence  of  an  irritating 
particle  in  our  nostrils  or  windpipe — that  is,  when  the 
same  sensory  nerve-cells  are  excited,  as  in  the  case  of 
sneezing  and  coughing — we  can  voluntarily  expel  the 


"  Dr.  Maudsley,  '  Body  and  Mind,'  1870,  p.  8, 


DHAP.I.  SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED   HABITS.  37 

particle  by  forcibly  driving  air  througn  these  passages , 
but  we  cannot  do  this  with  nearly  the  same  force, 
rapidity,  and  precision,  as  by  a  reflex  action.  In  this 
latter  case  the  sensory  nerve-cells  apparently  excite 
the  motor  nerve-cells  without  any  waste  of  power  by 
first  communicating  with  the  cerebral  hemispheres — the 
seat  of  our  consciousness  and  volition.  In  all  cases 
there  seems  to  exist  a  profound  antagonism  between  the 
same  movements,  as  directed  by  the  will  and  by  a  reflex 
stimulant,  in  the  force  with  which  they  are  performed 
and  in  the  facility  with  which  they  are  excited.  As 
Claude  Bernard  asserts,  "  L'influence  du  cerveau  tend 
"  done  a  entraver  les  mouvements  reflexes,  a  limiter 
"  leur  force  et  leur  etendue."  n 

The  conscious  wish  to  perform  a  reflex  action  some- 
times stops  or  interrupts  its  performance,  though  the 
proper  sensory  nerves  may  be  stimulated.  For  in- 
stance, many  years  ago  I  laid  a  small  wager  with  a 
dozen  young  men  that  they  would  not  sneeze  if  they 
took  snuff,  although  they  all  declared  that  they  in- 
variably did  so;  accordingly  they  all  took  a  pinch,  but 
from  wishing  much  to  succeed,  not  one  sneezed,  though 
their  eyes  watered,  and  all,  without  exception,  had  to 
pay  me  the  wager.  Sir  H.  Holland  remarks 12  that 
attention  paid  to  the  act  of  swallowing  interferes  with 
the  proper  movements ;  from  which  it  probably  follows, 
at  least  in  part,  that  some  persons  find  it  so  difficult  to 
swallow  a  pill. 

Another  familiar  instance  of  a  reflex  action  is  the 
involuntary  closing  of  the  eyelids  when  the  surface  of 
the  eye  is  touched.  A  similar  winking  movement  is 
caused  when  a  blow  is  directed  towards  the  face ;  but 

11  See  the  very  interesting  discussion  on  the  whole  subject  by  Claude 
Bernard,  '  Tissus  Vivants,'  18G6,  pp.  353-356. 

12  «  Chapters  on  Mental  Physiology,'  1858,  p.  85. 


88  THE  PRINCIPLE   OF  CHAP.  L 

this  is  an  habitual  and  not  a  strictly  reflex  action,  as 
the  stimulus  is  conveyed  through  the  mind  and  not  by 
the  excitement  of  a  peripheral  nerve.  The  whole  body 
and  head  are  generally  at  the  same  time  drawn  suddenly 
backwards.  These  latter  movements,  however,  can  be 
prevented,  if  the  danger  does  not  appear  to  the  imagi- 
nation imminent ;  but  our  reason  telling  us  that  there 
is  no  danger  does  not  suffice.  I  may  mention  a  trifling 
fact,  illustrating  this  point,  and  which  at  the  time 
amused  me.  I  put  my  face  close  to  the  thick  glass- 
plate  in  front  of  a  puff-adder  in  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
with  the  firm  determination  of  not  starting  back  if  the 
snake  struck  at  me ;  but,  as  soon  as  the  blow  was  struck, 
my  resolution  went  for  nothing,  and  I  jumped  a  yard  or 
two  backwards  with  astonishing  rapidity.  My  will  and 
reason  were  powerless  against  the  imagination  of  a 
danger  which  had  never  been  experienced. 

The  violence  of  a  start  seems  to  depend  partly  on  the 
vividness  of  the  imagination,  and  partly  on  the  con- 
dition, either  habitual  or  temporary,  of  the  nervous 
system.  He  who  will  attend  to  the  starting  of  his 
horse,  when  tired  and  fresh,  will  perceive  how  per- 
fect is  the  gradation  from  a  mere  glance  at  some  unex- 
pected object,  with  a  momentary  doubt  whether  it  is 
dangerous,  to  a  jump  so  rapid  and  violent,  that  the 
animal  probably  could  not  voluntarily  whirl  round  in 
so  rapid  a  manner.  The  nervous  system  of  a  fresh 
and  highly-fed  horse  sends  its  order  to  the  motory 
system  so  quickly,  that  no  time  is  allowed  for  him  to 
consider  whether  or  not  the  danger  is  real.  After 
one  violent  start,  when  he  is  excited  and  the  blood 
flows  freely  through  his  brain,  he  is  very  apt  to  start 
again ;  and  so  it  is,  as  I  have  noticed,  with  young 
infants. 

A  start  from  a  sudden  noise,  when  the  stimulus  is 


CHAP.  I.          SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  39 

conveyed  through  the  auditory  nerves,  is  always  accom- 
panied in  grown-up  persons  by  the  winking  of  the  eye- 
lids. 13  I  observed,  however,  that  though  iny  infants 
started  at  sudden  sounds,  when  under  a  fortnight  old, 
they  certainly  did  not  always  wink  their  eyes,  and  I  be- 
lieve never  did  so.  The  start  of  an  older  infant  appa- 
rently represents  a  vague  catching  hold  of  something  to 
prevent  falling.  I  shook  a  pasteboard  box  close  before 
the  eyes  of  one  of  my  infants,  when  114  days  old,  and 
it  did  not  in  the  least  wink;  but  when  I  put  a  few 
comfits  into  the  box,  holding  it  in  the  same  position  as 
before,  and  rattled  them,  the  child  blinked  its  eyes 
violently  every  time,  and  started  a  little.  It  was  ob- 
viously impossible  that  a  carefully-guarded  infant  could 
have  learnt  by  experience  that  a  rattling  sound  near  its 
eyes  indicated  danger  to  them.  But  such  experience 
will  have  been  slowly  gained  at  a  later  age  during  a 
long  series  of  generations ;  and  from  what  we  know  of 
inheritance,  there  is  nothing  improbable  in  the  transmis- 
sion of  a  habit  to  the  offspring  at  an  earlier  age  than 
that  at  which  it  was  first  acquired  by  the  parents. 

From  the  foregoing  remarks  it  seems  probable  that 
some  actions,  which  were  at  first  performed  consciously, 
have  become  through  habit  and  association  converted 
into  reflex  actions,  and  are  now  so  firmly  fixed  and  in- 
herited, that  they  are  performed,  even  when  not  of  the 
least  use, 14  as  often  as  the  same  causes  arise,  which 
originally  excited  them  in  us  through  the  volition.  In 
such  cases  the  sensory  nerve-cells  excite  the  motor  cells, 

13  Miiller  remarks  ('  Elements  of  Physiology,'  Eng.  tr.  vol.  ii.  p. 
1311)  on  starting  being  always  accompanied  by  the  closure  of  the 
eyelids. 

14  Dr.  Maudsley  remarks  ('Body  and  Mind,'  p.  10)  that  "reflex 
movements  which  commonly  effect  a  useful  end  may,  under  the  changed 
circumstances  of  disease,  do  great  mischief,  becoming  even  the  occasion 
of  violent  suffering  and  of  a  most  painful  death." 


40  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  CHAP.  I. 

without  first  communicating  with  those  cells  on  which 
our  consciousness  and  volition  depend.  It  is  probable 
that  sneezing  and  coughing  were  originally  acquired  by 
the  habit  of  expelling,  as  violently  as  possible,  any  irri- 
tating particle  from  the  sensitive  air-passages.  As  far 
as  time  is  concerned,  there  has  been  more  than  enough 
for  these  habits  to  have  become  innate  or  converted  into 
reflex  actions ;  for  they  are  common  to  most  or  all  of  the 
higher  quadrupeds,  and  must  therefore  have  been  first 
acquired  at  a  very  remote  period.  Why  the  act  of 
clearing  the  throat  is  not  a  reflex  action,  and  has  to  be 
learnt  by  our  children,  I  cannot  pretend  to  say ;  but  we 
can  see  why  blowing  the  nose  on  a  handkerchief  has  to 
be  learnt. 

It  is  scarcely  credible  that  the  movements  of  a 
headless  frog,  when  it  wipes  off  a  drop  of  acid  or  other 
object  from  its  thigh,  and  which  movements  are  so  well 
co-ordinated  for  a  special  purpose,  were  not  at  first  per- 
formed voluntarily,  being  afterwards  rendered  easy 
through  long-continued  habit  so  as  at  last  to  be  per- 
formed unconsciously,  or  independently  of  the  cerebral 
hemispheres. 

So  again  it  appears  probable  that  starting  was 
originally  acquired  by  the  habit  of  jumping  away  as 
quickly  as  possible  from  danger,  whenever  any  of  our 
senses  gave  us  warning.  Starting,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
accompanied  by  the  blinking  of  the  eyelids  so  as  to 
protect  the  eyes,  the  most  tender  and  sensitive  organs 
of  the  body ;  and  it  is,  I  believe,  always  accompanied 
by  a  sudden  and  forcible  inspiration,  which  is  the 
natural  preparation  for  any  violent  effort.  But  when 
a  man  or  horse  starts,  his  heart  beats  wildly  against 
his  ribs,  and  here  it  may  be  truly  said  we  have  an 
organ  which  has  never  been  under  the  control  of  the 
will,  partaking  in  the  general  reflex  movements  of 


CHAP.  1.          SERVICEABLE   ASSOCIATED   HABITS.  41 

the  body.  To  this  point,  however,  I  shall  return  in 
a  future  chapter. 

The  contraction  of  the  iris,  when  the  retina  is  stimu- 
lated by  a  bright  light,  is  another  instance  of  a  move- 
ment, which  it  appears  cannot  possibly  have  been  at 
first  voluntarily  performed  and  then  fixed  by  habit ; 
for  the  iris  is  not  known  to  be  under  the  conscious 
control  of  the  will  in  any  animal.  In  such  cases  some 
explanation,  quite  distinct  from  habit,  will  have  to 
be  discovered.  The  radiation  of  nerve-force  from 
strongly-excited  nerve-cells  to  other  connected  cells,  as 
in  the  case  of  a  bright  light  on  the  retina  causing  a 
sneeze,  may  perhaps  aid  us  in  understanding  how 
some  reflex  actions  originated.  A  radiation  of  nerve- 
force  of  this  kiur),  if  it  caused  a  movement  tending  to 
lessen  the  primary  irritation,  as  in  the  case  of  the  con- 
traction of  the  iris  preventing  too  much  light  from 
falling  on  the  retina,  might  afterwards  have  been  taken 
advantage  of  and  modified  for  this  special  purpose. 

It  further  deserves  notice  that  reflex  actions  are  in 
all  probability  liable  to  slight  variations,  as  are  all 
corporeal  structures  and  instincts;  and  any  variations 
which  were  beneficial  and  of  sufficient  importance, 
would  tend  to  be  preserved  and  inherited.  Thus  reflex 
actions,  when  once  gained  for  one  purpose,  might 
afterwards  be  modified  independently  of  the  will  or 
habit,  so  as  to  serve  for  some  distinct  purpose.  Such 
cases  would  be  parallel  with  those  which,  as  we  have 
every  reason  to  believe,  have  occurred  with  many 
instincts;  for  although  some  instincts  have  been  de- 
veloped simply  through  long-continued  and  inherited 
habit,  other  highly  complex  ones  have  been  developed 
through  the  preservation  of  variations  of  pre-existing 
instincts — that  is,  through  natural  selection. 

I  have  discussed  at  some  little  length,  though  as  I 


42  THE  PKINCIPLE  OF  CHAP.  1. 

am  well  aware,  in  a  very  imperfect  manner,  the  acquire- 
ment of  reflex  actions,  because  they  are  often  brought 
into  play  in  connection  with  movements  expressive  of 
our  emotions ;  and  it  was  necessary  to  show  that  at  least 
some  of  them  might  have  been  first  acquired  through 
the  will  in  order  to  satisfy  a  desire,  or  to  relieve  a 
disagreeable  sensation. 

Associated  habitual  movements  in  the  lower  animals. 
— I  have  already  given  in  the  case  of  Man  several 
instances  of  movements,  associated  with  various  states 
of  the  mind  or  body,  which  are  now  purposeless,  but 
which  were  originally  of  use,  and  are  still  of  use  under 
certain  circumstances.  As  this  subject  is  very  impor- 
tant for  us,  I  will  here  give  a  considerable  number  of 
analogous  facts,  with  reference  to  animals;  although 
many  of  them  are  of  a  very  trifling  nature.  My  ob- 
ject is  to  show  that  certain  movements  were  origi- 
nally performed  for  a  definite  end,  and  that,  under 
nearly  the  same  circumstances,  they  are  still  pertina- 
ciously performed  through  habit  when  not  of  the  least 
use.  That  the  tendency  in  most  of  the  following  cases 
is  inherited,  we  may  infer  from  such  actions  being 
performed  in  the  same  manner  by  all  the  individuals, 
young  and  old,  of  the  same  species.  We  shall  also  see 
that  they  are  excited  by  the  most  diversified,  often 
circuitous,  and  sometimes  mistaken  associations. 

Dogs,  when  they  wish  to  go  to  sleep  on  a  carpet  or 
other  hard  surface,  generally  turn  round  and  round  and 
scratch  the  ground  with  their  fore-paws  in  a  sense- 
less manner,  as  if  they  intended  to  trample  down 
the  grass  and  scoop  out  a  hollow,  as  no  doubt  their 
wild  parents  did,  when  they  lived  on  open  grassy  plains 
or  in  the  woods.  Jackals,  fennecs,  and  other  allied 
animals  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  treat  their  straw  in 


CHAP.  I.  SERVICEABLE   ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  43 

this  manner;  but  it  is  a  rather  odd  circumstance  that 
the  keepers,  after  observing  for  some  months,  have 
never  seen  the  wolves  thus  behave.  A  semi-idiotic 
dog — and  an  animal  in  this  condition  would  be  particu- 
larly liable  to  follow  a  senseless  habit — was  observed 
by  a  friend  to  turn  completely  round  on  a  carpet 
thirteen  times  before  going  to  sleep. 

Many  carnivorous  animals,  as  they  crawl  towards  their 
prey  and  prepare  to  rush  or  spring  on  it,  lower  their 
heads  and  crouch,  partly,  as  it  would  appear,  to  hide 
themselves,  and  partly  to  get  rearly  for  their  rush ;  and 
this  habit  in  an  exaggerated  form  has  become  here- 
ditary in  our  pointers  and  setters.  Now  I  have 
noticed  scores  of  times  that  when  two  strange  dogs 
meet  on  an  open  road,  the  one  which  first  sees  the 
other,  though  at  the  distance  of  one  or  two  hundred 
yards,  after  the  first  glance  always  lowers  its  head, 
generally  crouches  a  little,  or  even  lies  down ;  that  is, 
he  takes  the  proper  attitude  for  concealing  himself  and 
for  making  a  rush  or  spring,  although  the  road  is  quite 
open  and  the  distance  great.  Again,  dogs  of  all  kinds 
when  intently  watching  and  slowly  approaching  their 
prey,  frequently  keep  one 
of  their  fore-legs  doubled 
up  for  a  long  time,  ready 
for  the  next  cautious  step; 
and  this  is  eminently  cha- 
racteristic of  the  pointer. 
But  from  habit  they  be-  ^ 
have  in  exactly  the  same 
manner  whenever  their  Fig.  4.  smaii  dog  washing  a  cat  on  a 
attention  is  aroused  (fig.  *"*•  *>«*  a  photograph  uke*  by  Mr. 

Inlander. 

4).     I  have   seen  a  dog 

at  the  foot  of  a  high  wall,  listening  attentively  to  a 

sound  on  the  opposite  side,  with  one  leg  doubled  up ; 


44  THE   PRINCIPLE  OF  CHAP.  I. 

and  in  this  case  there  could  have  been  no  intention  of 
making  a  cautious  approach. 

Dogs  after  voiding  their  excrement  often  make  with 
all  four  feet  a  few  scratches  backwards,  even  on  a  bare 
stone  pavement,  as  if  for  the  purpose  of  covering  up 
their  excrement  with  earth,  in  nearly  the  same  manner 
as  do  cats.  Wolves  and  jackals  behave  in  the  Zoo- 
logical Gardens  in  exactly  the  same  manner,  yet,  as  I 
am  assured  by  the  keepers,  neither  wolves,  jackals,  nor 
foxes,  when  they  have  the  means  of  doing  so,  ever  cover 
up  their  excrement,  any  mojre  than  do  dogs.  All  these 
animals,  however,  bury  superfluous  food.  Hence,  if  we 
rightly  understand  the  meaning  of  the  above  cat-like 
habit,  of  which  there  can  be  little  doubt,  we  have  a 
purposeless  remnant  of  an  habitual  movement,  which 
was  originally  followed  by  some  remote  progenitor  of 
the  dog-genus  for  a  definite  purpose,  and  which  has 
been  retained  for  a  prodigious  length  of  time. 

Dogs  and  jackals 15  take  much  pleasure  in  rolling 
and  rubbing  their  necks  and  backs  on  carrion.  The 
odour  seems  delightful  to  them,  though  dogs  at  least  do 
not  eat  carrion.  Mr.  Bartlett  has  observed  wolves  for 
me,  and  has  given  them  carrion,  but  has  never  seen 
them  roll  on  it.  I  have  heard  it  remarked,  and  I 
believe  it  to  be  true,  that  the  larger  dogs,  which  are 
probably  descended  from  wolves,  do  not  so  often  roll  in 
carrion  as  do  smaller  dogs,  which  are  probably  descended 
from  jackals.  When  a  piece  of  brown  biscuit  is  offered 
to  a  terrier  of  mine  and  she  is  not  hungry  (and  I 
have  heard  of  similar  instances),  she  first  tosses  it  about 
and  worries  it,  as  if  it  were  a  rat  or  other  prey ;  she  then 
repeatedly  rolls  on  it  precisely  as  if  it  were  a  piece  of 


15  See  Mr.  F.  H.  Salvin's  account  of  a  tame  jackal  in  '  La-id  and 
Water,'  October,  1869. 


CHAP.  I.  SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  45 

carrion,  and  at  last  eats  it.  It  would  appear  that  an 
imaginary  relish  has  to  be  given  to  the  distasteful 
morsel ;  and  to  effect  this  the  dog  acts  in  his  habitual 
manner,  as  if  the  biscuit  was  a  live  animal  or  smelt  like 
carrion,  though  he  knows  better  than  we  do  that  this 
is  not  the  case.  I  have  seen  this  same  terrier  act  in 
the  same  manner  after  killing  a  little  bird  or  mouse. 

Dogs  scratch  themselves  by  a  rapid  movement  of  one 
of  their  hind  feet;  and  when  their  backs  are  rubbed 
with  a  stick,  so  strong  is  the  habit,  that  they  cannot 
help  rapidly  scratching  the  air  or  the  ground  in  a  use- 
less and  ludicrous  manner.  The  terrier  just  alluded  to, 
when  thus  scratched  with  a  stick,  will  sometimes  show 
her  delight  by  another  habitual  movement,  namely,  by 
licking  the  air  as  if  it  were  my  hand. 

Horses  scratch  themselves  by  nibbling  those  parts  of 
their  bodies  which  they  can  reach  with  their  teeth; 
but  more  commonly  one  horse  shows  another  where  he 
wants  to  be  scratched,  and  they  then  nibble  each  other. 
A  friend  whose  attention  I  had  called  to  the  subject, 
observed  that  when  he  rubbed  his  horse's  neck,  the 
animal  protruded  his  head,  uncovered  his  teeth,  and 
moved  his  jaws,  exactly  as  if  nibbling  another  horse's 
neck,  for  he  could  never  have  nibbled  his  own  neck.  If 
a  horse  is  much  tickled,  as  when  curry-combed,  his  wish 
to  bite  something  becomes  so  intolerably  strong,  that  he 
will  clatter  his  teeth  together,  and  though  not  vicious, 
bite  his  groom.  At  the  same  time  from  habit  he 
closely  depresses  his  ears,  so  as  to  protect  them  from 
being  bitten,  as  if  he  were  fighting  with  another  horse. 

A  horse  when  eager  to  start  on  a  journey  makes  the 
nearest  approach  which  he  can  to  the  habitual  move- 
ment of  progression  by  pawing  the  ground.  Now  when 
horses  in  their  stalls  are  about  to  be  fed  and  are  eager 
for  their  corn,  they  paw  the  pavement  or  the  straw. 


46  THE   PRINCIPLE  OF  CHAP.  I. 

Two  of  ray  horses  thus  behave  when  they  see  or  hear 
the  corn  given  to  their  neighbours.  But  here  we  have 
what  may  almost  be  called  a  true  expression,  as  pawing 
the  ground  is  universally  recognized  as  a  sign  of  eagerness. 

Cats  cover  up  their  excrements  of  both  kinds  with 
earth;  and  my  grandfather16  saw  a  kitten  scraping 
ashes  over  a  spoonful  of  pure  water  spilt  on  the  hearth  ; 
so  that  here  an  habitual  or  instinctive  action  was  falsely 
excited,  not  by  a  previous  act  or  by  odour,  but  by  eyesight. 
It  is  well  known  that  cats  dislike  wetting  their  feet, 
owing,  it  is  probable,  to  their  having  aboriginally  inha- 
bited the  dry  country  of  Egypt;  and  when  they  wet 
their  feet  they  shake  them  violently.  My  daughter 
poured  some  water  into  a  glass  close  to  the  head  of  a 
kitten ;  and  it  immediately  shook  its  feet  in  the  usual 
manner ;  so  that  here  we  have  an  habitual  movement 
falsely  excited  by  an  associated  sound  instead  of  by  the 
sense  of  touch. 

Kittens,  puppies,  young  pigs  and  probably  many  other 
young  animals,  alternately  push  with  their  fore-feet 
against  the  mammary  glands  of  their  mothers,  to 
excite  a  freer  secretion  of  milk,  or  to  make  it  flow. 
Now  it  is  very  common  with  young  cats,  and  not  at  all 
rare  with  old  cats  of  the  common  and  Persian  breeds 
(believed  by  some  naturalists  to  be  specifically  ex- 
tinct), when  comfortably  lying  on  a  warm  shawl  or 
other  soft  substance,  to  pound  it  quietly  and  alternately 
with  their  fore-feet;  their  toes  being  spread  out  and 
claws  slightly  protruded,  precisely  as  when  sucking 
their  mother.  That  it  is  the  same  movement  is  clearly 
shown  by  their  often  at  the  same  time  taking  a  bit  of 


16  Dr.  Darwin,  '  Zoonomia,'  1794,  vol.  i.  p.  160.  I  find  that  the  fact 
of  cats  protruding  their  feet  when  pleased  is  also  noticed  (p.  151)  in 
this  work. 


CHAP.  I.  SERVICEABLE   ASSOCIATED   HABITS.  47 

the  shawl  into  their  mouths  and  sucking  it ;  generally 
closing  their  eyes  and  purring  from  delight.  This 
curious  movement  is  commonly  excited  only  in  associa- 
tion with  the  sensation  of  a  warm  soft  surface ;  but  I 
have  seen  an  old  cat,  when  pleased  by  having  its  back 
scratched,  pounding  the  air  with  its  feet  in  the  same 
manner ;  so  that  this  action  has  almost  become  the 
expression  of  a  pleasurable  sensation. 

Having  referred  to  the  act  of  sucking,  I  may  add 
that  this  complex  movement,  as  well  as  the  alternate 
protrusion  of  the  fore-feet,  are  reflex  actions ;  for  they 
are  performed  if  a  finger  moistened  with  milk  is  place  1 
in  the  mouth  of  a  puppy,  the  front  part  of  whose  brain 
has  been  removed.17  It  has  recently  been  stated 
in  France,  that  the  action  of  sucking  is  excited  solely 
through  the  sense  of  smell,  so  that  if  the  olfactory 
nerves  of  a  puppy  are  destroyed,  it  never  sucks.  In 
like  manner  the  wonderful  power  which  a  chicken 
possesses  only  a  few  hours  after  being  hatched,  of 
picking  up  small  particles  of  foorl,  seems  to  be  started 
into  action  through  the  sense  of  hearing;  for  with 
chickens  hatched  by  artificial  heat,  a  good  observer 
found  that  "  making  a  noise  with  the  finger-nail  against 
"  a  board,  in  imitation  of  the  hen-mother,  first  taught 
"  them  to  peck  at  their  meat."18 

I  will  give  only  one  other  instance  of  an  habitual 
and  purposeless  movement.     The  Sheldrake  (Tadorna) 
feeds   on   the   sands   left  uncovered  by  the  tide,  and 
when  a  worm-cast  is  discovered,  "  it  begins  patting  the 
"  ground  with  its  feet,  dancing  as  it  were,  over  the 
"hole;"  and  this  makes  the  worm  come  to  the  surface. 
Now  Mr.  St.  John  says,  that  when  his  tame  Sheldrakes 

II  Carpenter,  '  Principles  of  Comparative  Physiology,'  1854,  p.  690 
and  Mailer's  '  EL  ments  of  Physiology/  Eng.  translat.  vol.  ii.  p.  936. 

ls  Mowbniy  on  «  Poultry,'  6th  edit.  1830,  p.  54. 


4:8  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  CHAP.  I. 

•'  came  to  ask  for  food,  they  patted  the  ground  in  an 
"impatient  and  rapid  manner."19  This  therefore 
may  almost  be  considered  as  their  expression  of  hun- 
ger. Mr.  Bartlett  informs  me  that  the  Flamingo  and 
the  Kagu  (Khinochetus  jubatus)  when  anxious  to  be 
fed,  beat  the  ground  with  their  feet  in  the  same  odd 
manner.  So  again  Kingfishers,  when  they  catcli  a 
fish,  always  beat  it  until  it  is  killed ;  and  in  the  Zoo- 
logical Gardens  they  always  beat  the  raw  meat,  with 
which  they  are  sometimes  fed,  before  devouring  it. 

We  have  now,  I  think,  sufficiently  shown  the  truth 
of  our  first  Principle,  namely,  that  when  any  sensation, 
desire,  dislike,  &c.,  has  led  during  a  long  series  of 
generations  to  some  voluntary  movement,  then  a  ten- 
dency to  the  performance  of  a  similar  movement  will 
almost  certainly  be  excited,  whenever  the  same,  or  any 
analogous  or  associated  sensation  &c.,  although  very 
weak,  is  experienced  ;  notwithstanding  that  the  move- 
ment in  this  case  may  not  be  of  the  least  use.  Such 
habitual  movements  are  often,  or  generally  inherited ; 
and  they  then  differ  but  little  from  reflex  actions. 
When  we  treat  of  the  special  expressions  of  man,  the 
latter  part  of  our  first  Principle,  as  given  at  the  com- 
mencement of  this  chapter,  will  be  seen  to  hold  good ; 
namely,  that  when  movements,  associated  through  habit 
with  certain  states  of  the  mind,  are  partially  repressed 
by  the  will,  the  strictly  involuntary  muscles,  as  well  as 
those  which  are  least  under  the  separate  control  of  the 
will,  are  liable  still  to  act;  and  their  action  is  often 
highly  expressive.  Conversely,  when  the  will  is  tempo- 
rarily or  permanently  weakened,  the  voluntary  muscles 


19  See  the  account  given  by  this  excellent  observer  in  '  Wild  Sports 
of  the  Highlands,'  1846,  p.  142. 


CHAP.  I.  SERVICEABLE   ASSOCIATED   HABITS.  49 

fail  before  the  involuntary.  It  is  a  fact  familiar  to  pa- 
thologists,  as  Sir  C.  Bell  remarks,20  "that  when  de- 
"  bility  arises  from  affection  of  the  brain,  the  influence 
"  is  greatest  on  those  muscles  which  are,  in  their  natural 
"  condition,  most  under  the  command  of  the  will."  We 
shall,  also,  in  our  future  chapters,  consider  another 
proposition  included  in  our  first  Principle ;  namely, 
that  the  checking  of  one  habitual  movement  sometimes 
requires  other  slight  movements;  these  latter  serving 
as  a  means  of  expression. 


80  'Philosophical  Translations,'  1823;  p.  182. 


CHAPTER  II. 

y 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  EXPRESSION  —continued. 

The  Principle  of  Antithesis  —  Instances  in  the  dog  and  cat  —  Origin 
of  the  principle  —  Conventional  signs  —  The  principle  of  anti- 
thesis has  not  arisen  from  opposite  actions  being  consciously 
performed  under  opposite  impulses. 

WE  will  now  consider  our  second  Principle,  that  of 
Antithesis  Certain  states  of  tne  mind  lead,  as  we  have 
seen  in  the  last  chapter,  to  certain  habitual  move- 
ments which  were  primarily,  or  may  still  be,  of  service ; 
and  we  shall  find  that  when  a  directly  opposite  state 
of  mind  is  induced,  there  is  a  strong  and  involuntary 
tendency  to  the  performance  of  movements  of  a  directly 
opposite  nature,  though  these  have  never  been  of  any 
service.  A  few  striking  instances  of  antithesis  will  be 
given,  when  we  treat  of  the  special  expressions  of  man ; 
but  as,  in  these  cases,  we  are  particularly  liable  to 
confound  conventional  or  artificial  gestures  and  ex- 
pressions with  those  which  are  innate  or  universal,  and 
which  alone  deserve  to  rank  as  true  expressions,  I  will 
in  the  present  chapter  almost  confine  myself  to  the 
lower  animals. 

When  a  dog  approaches  a  strange  dog  or  man  in  a 
savage  or  hostile  frame  of  mind  he  walks  upright  and 
very  stiffly;  his  head  is  slightly  raised,  or  not  much 
lowered ;  the  tail  is  held  erect  and  quite  rigid ;  the 
hairs  bristle,  especially  along  the  neck  and  back; 
the  pricked  ears  are  directed  forwards,  and  the  eyes 
have  a  fixed  stare  :  (see  figs.  5  and  7).  These  actions, 
as  will  hereafter  be  explained,  follow  from  the  dog's 


CHAP.  II.  THE   PRINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS.  51 

intention  to  attack  his  enemy,  and  are  thus  to  a 
large  extent  intelligible.  As  he  prepares  to  spring 
with  a  savage  growl  on  his  enemy,  the  canine  teeth 
are  uncovered,  and  the  ears  are  pressed  close  back- 
wards on  the  head ;  but  with  these  latter  actions,  we 
are  not  here  concerned.  Let  us  now  suppose  that  the 
dog  suddenly  discovers  that  the  man  whom  he  is 
approaching,  is  not  a  stranger,  but  his  master;  and 
let  it  be  observed  how  completely  and  instantaneously 
his  whole  bearing  is  reversed.  Instead  of  walking 
upright,  the  body  sinks  downwards  or  even  crouches,  and 
is  thrown  into  flexuous  movements ;  his  tail,  instead  of 
being  held  stiff  and  upright,  is  lowered  and  wagged  from 
side  to  side ;  his  hair  instantly  becomes  smooth ;  his 
ears  are  depressed  and  drawn  backwards,  but  not  closely 
to  the  head;  and  his  lips  hang  loosely.  From  the 
drawing  back  of  the  ears,  the  eyelids  become  elongated, 
and  the  eyes  no  longer  appear  round  and  staring.  It 
should  be  added  that  the  animal  is  at  such  times  in  an 
excited  condition  from  joy ;  and  nerve-force  will  be 
generated  in  excess,  which  naturally  leads  to  action  of 
some  kind.  Not  one  of  the  above  movements,  so  clearly 
expressive  of  affection,  are  of  the  least  direct  service  to 
the  animal.  They  are  explicable,  as  far  as  I  can  see, 
solely  from  being  in  complete  opposition  or  antithesis  to 
the  attitude  and  movements  which,  from  intelligible 
causes,  are  assumed  when  a  dog  intends  to  fight,  and 
which  consequently  are  expressive  of  anger.  I  request 
the  reader  to  look  at  the  four  accompanying  sketches, 
which  have  been  given  in  order  to  recall  vividly  the 
appearance  of  a  dog  under  these  two  states  of  mind. 
It  is,  however,  not  a  little  difficult  to  represent  affection 
in  a  dog,  whilst  caressing  his  master  and  wagging  his 
tail,  as  the  essence  of  the  expression  lies  in  the  con- 
tinuous flexuous  movements. 


52 


THE   PKINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS,  CHAP  II 


CHAP.  II.  THE   PRINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS. 


53 


54 


THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS.  CHAP.  IL 


CHAP.  II.          THE  PKINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS. 


55 


Fig.  8.    The  same  caressing  his  master.    By  Mr  A.  May. 


56  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS.  CHAP  II. 

We  will  now  turn  to  the  cat.  When  this  animal  is 
threatened  by  a  dog,  it  arches  its  back  in  a  surprising 
manner,  erects  its  hair,  opens  its  mouth  and  spits. 
But  we  are  not  here  concerned  with  this  well-known 
attitude,  expressive  of  terror  combined  with  anger ; 
we  are  concerned  only  with  that  of  rage  or  anger. 
This  is  not  often  seen,  but  may  be  observed  when  two 
cats  are  fighting  together;  and  I  have  seen  it  well 
exhibited  by  a  savage  cat  whilst  plagued  by  a  boy 
The  attitude  is  almost  exactly  the  same  as  that  of 
a  tiger  disturbed  and  growling  over  its  food,  which 
every  one  must  have  beheld  in  menageries.  The 
animal  assumes  a  crouching  position,  with  the  body 
extended;  and  the  whole  tail,  or  the  tip  alone,  is 
lashed  or  curled  from  side  to  side.  The  hair  is  not 
in  the  least  erect.  Thus  far,  the  attitude  and  move- 
ments are  nearly  the  same  as  when  the  animal  is 
prepared  to  spring  on  its  prey,  and  when,  no  doubt, 
it  feels  savage.  But  when  preparing  to  fight,  there 
is  this  difference,  that  the  ears  are  closely  pressed 
backwards ;  the  mouth  is  partially  opened,  showing  the 
teeth;  the  fore  feet  are  occasionally  struck  out  with 
protruded  claws ;  and  the  animal  occasionally  utters  a 
fierce  growl.  (See  figs.  9  and  10.)  All,  or  almost  all, 
these  actions  naturally  follow  (as  hereafter  to  be 
explained),  from  the  cat's  manner  and  intention  of 
attacking  its  enemy. 

Let  us  now  look  at  a  cat  in  a  directly  opposite 
frame  of  mind,  whilst  feeling  affectionate  and  caressing 
her  master ;  and  mark  how  opposite  is  her  attitude  in 
every  respect.  She  now  stands  upright  with  her  back 
slightly  arched,  which  makes  the  hair  appear  rather 
rough,  but  it  does  net  bristle  ;  her  tail,  instead  of  being 
extended  and  lashed  from  side  to  side,  is  held  quite 
stiff  and  perpendicularly  upwards;  her  ears  are  erect 


CHAP..  II.  THE   PRINCIPLE   OF   ANTITHESIS.  57 

and  pointed;  her  mouth  is  closed  ;  and  she  rubs  against 
her  master  with  a  purr  instead  of  a  growl.  Let  it 
further  be  observed  how  widely  different  is  the  whole 
bearing  of  an  affectionate  cat  from  that  of  a  dog,  when 
with  his  body  crouching  and  flexuous,  his  tail  lowered 
and  wagging,  and  ears  depressed,  he  caresses  his  master. 
This  contrast  in  the  attitudes  and  movements  of  these 
two  carnivorous  animals,  under  the  same  pleased  and 
affectionate  frame  of  mind,  can  be  explained,  as  it 
appears  to  me,  solely  by  their  movements  standing  in 
complete  antithesis  to  those  which  are  naturally 
assumed,  when  these  animals  feel  savage  and  are 
prepared  either  to  fight  or  to  seize  their  prey. 

In  these  cases  of  the  dog  and  cat,  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  gestures  both  of  hostility  and 
affection  are  innate  or  inherited ;  for  they  are  almost 
identically  the  same  in  the  different  races  of  the  spe- 
cies, and  in  all  the  individuals  of  the  same  race, 
both  young  and  old. 

I  will  here  give  one  other  instance  of  antithesis  in  ex- 
pression. I  formerly  possessed  a  large  dog,  who,  like 
every  other  dog,  was  much  pleased  to  go  out  walking. 
He  showed  his  pleasure  by  trotting  gravely  before  me 
with  high  steps,  head  much  raised,  moderately  erected 
ears,  and  tail  carried  aloft  but  not  stiffly.  Not  far  from 
my  house  a  path  branches  off  to  the  right,  leading  to 
the  hot-house,  which  I  used  often  to  visit  for  a  few 
moments,  to  look  at  my  experimental  plants.  This  was 
always  a  great  disappointment  to  the  dog,  as  he  did  not 
know  whether  I  should  continue  my  walk  ;  and  the  in- 
stantaneous and  complete  change  of  expression  which 
came  over  him,  as  soon  as  my  body  swerved  in  the  least 
towards  the  path  (and  I  sometimes  tried  this  as  an 
experiment)  was  laughable.  His  look  of  dejection  was 
known  to  every  member  of  the  family,  and  was  called 


58 


THE  PRINCIPLE   OF  ANTITHESIS.  CHAP.  II. 


CHAP   II.          THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS, 


59 


Fig.  10.   Cat  in  an  affectionate  frame  of  mind,  by  Mr.  Wood. 


60  THE   PRINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS.  CHAP.  II. 

his  hot-house  face.  This  consisted  in  the  head  drooping 
much,  the  whole  body  sinking  a  little  and  remaining 
motionless ;  the  ears  and  tail  falling  suddenly  down, 
but  the  tail  was  by  no  means  wagged.  With  the 
falling  of  the  ears  and  of  his  great  chaps,  the  eyes 
became  much  cnanged  in  appearance,  and  I  fancied 
that  they  looked  less  bright.  His  aspect  was  that  of 
piteous,  hopeless  dejection ;  and  it  was,  as  I  have  said, 
laughable,  as  the  cause  was  so  slight.  Every  detail 
in  his  attitude  was  in  complete  opposition  to  his  former 
joyful  yet  dignified  bearing ;  and  can  be  explained,  as 
it  appears  to  me,  in  no  other  way,  except  through  the 
principle  of  antithesis.  Had  not  the  change  been  so 
instantaneous,  I  should  have  attributed  it  to  his  lowered 
spirits  affecting,  as  in  the  case  of  man,  the  nervous 
system  and  circulation,  and  consequently  the  tone  of  his 
whole  muscular  frame  ;  and  this  may  have  been  in  part 
the  cause. 

We  will  now  consider  how  the  principle  of  antithesis 
in  expression  has  arisen.  With  social  animals,  the  power 
of  intercommunication  between  the  members  of  the 
same  community, — and  with  other  species,  between  the 
opposite  sexes,  as  well  as  between  the  young  and  the 
old, —  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  them.  This 
is  generally  effected  by  means  of  the  voice,  but  it  is 
certain  that  gestures  and  expressions  are  to  a  certain 
extent  mutually  intelligible.  Man  not  only  uses  in- 
articulate cries,  gestures,  and  expressions,  but  has 
invented  articulate  language ;  if,  indeed,  the  word 
invented  can  be  applied  to  a  process,  completed  by 
innumerable  steps,  half-consciously  made.  Any  one 
who  has  watched  monkeys  will  not  doubt  that  they 
perfectly  understand  each  other's  gestures  and  ex- 
pression, and  to  a  large  extent,  as  Kengger 


CHAP.  II.  THE   PRINCIPLE   OF  ANTITHESIS.  61 

asserts,1  those  of  man.  An  animal  when  going  to 
attack  another,  or  when  afraid  of  another,  often 
makes  itself  appear  terrible,  by  erecting  its  hair,  thus 
increasing  the  apparent  bulk  of  its  body,  by  showing 
its  teeth,  or  brandishing  its  horns,  or  by  uttering  fierce 
sounds. 

As  the  power  of  intercommunication  is  certainly  of 
high  service  to  many  animals,  there  is  no  a  priori  im- 
probability in  the  supposition,  that  gestures  manifestly 
of  an  opposite  nature  to  those  by  which  certain  feelings 
are  already  expressed,  should  at  first  have  been  volun- 
tarily employed  under  the  influence  of  an  opposite  state 
of  feeling.  The  fact  of  the  gestures  being  now  innate, 
would  be  no  valid  objection  to  the  belief  that  they 
were  at  first  intentional ;  for  if  practised  during  many 
generations,  they  would  probably  at  last  be  inherited. 
Nevertheless  it  is  more  than  doubtful,  as  we  shall  imme- 
diately see,  whether  any  of  the  cases  which  come  under 
our  present  head  of  antithesis,  have  thus  originated. 

With  conventional  signs  which  are  not  innate,  such 
as  those  used  by  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  by  savages, 
the  principle  of  opposition  or  antithesis  has  been  par- 
tially brought  into  play.  The  Cistercian  monks  thought 
it  sinful  to  speak,  and  as  they  could  not  avoid  holding 
some  communication,  they  invented  a  gesture  language, 
in  which  the  principle  of  opposition  seems  to  have  been 
employed.  2  Dr.  Scott,  of  the  Exeter  Deaf  and  Dumb 
Institution,  writes  to  me  that  "  opposites  are  greatly 
"  used  in  teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb,  who  have  a  lively 
"  sense  of  them."  Nevertheless  I  have  been  surprised 
how  few  unequivocal  instances  can  be  adduced.  This 


1  '  Naturgeschichte  der  Saugetliiere  von  Paraguay,'  1830,  s.  55, 

2  Mr.  Tylor  gives  an  account  of  the  Cistercian  gesture-language  in 
hia  'Early  History  of  Mankind*  (2nd  edit.  1870,  p.  40),  and  makes 
some  remarks  on  the  principle  of  opposition  in  gestures. 


62  THE  PHINCIPLE   OF  ANTITHESIS.  CHAP.  II. 

depends  partly  on  all  the  signs  having  commonly  had 
some  natural  origin ;  and  partly  on  the  practice  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb  and  of  savages  to  contract  their  signs 
as  much  as  possible  for  the  sake  of  rapidity.  3  Hence 
their  natural  source  or  origin  often  becomes  doubtful  or 
is  completely  lost ;  as  is  likewise  the  case  with  articulate 
language. 

Many  signs;  moreover,  which  plainly  stand  in  oppo- 
sition to  each  other,  appear  to  have  had  on  both  sides 
a  significant  origin.  This  seems  to  hold  good  with 
the  signs  used  by  the  deaf  and  dumb  for  light  and 
darkness,  for  strength  and  weakness,  &c.  In  a  future 
chapter  I  shall  endeavour  to  show  that  the  opposite 
gestures  of  affirmation  and  negation,  namely,  verti- 
cally nodding  and  laterally  shaking  the  head,  have  both 
probably  had  a  natural  beginning.  The  waving  of  the 
hand  from  right  to  left,  which  is  used  as  a  negative  by 
some  savages,  may  have  been  invented  in  imitation  of 
shaking  the  head ;  but  whether  the  opposite  movement 
of  waving  the  hand  in  a  straight  line  from  the  face, 
which  is  used  in  affirmation,  has  arisen  through  anti- 
thesis or  in  some  quite  distinct  manner,  is  doubtful. 

If  we  now  turn  to  the  gestures  which  are  innate 
or  common  to  all  the  individuals  of  the  same  species, 
and  which  come  under  the  present  head  of  antithesis, 
it  is  extremely  doubtful,  whether  any  of  them  were  at 
first  deliberately  invented  and  consciously  performed. 
With  mankind  the  best  instance  of  a  gesture  standin^ 


3  See  on  this  subject  Dr.  W.  E.  Scott's  interesting  work,  •  The  Deaf 
and  Dumb,'  2nd  edit.  1870,  p.  12.  He  says,  "  This  contracting  of 
"  natural  gestures  into  much  shorter  gestures  than  the  natural  exprt*- 
*'  sion  requires,  is  very  common  amongst  the  deaf  and  dumb.  This 
"  contracted  gesture  is  frequently  so  shortened  as  nearly  to  lose  all 
"  semblance  of  the  natural  one,  but  to  the  deaf  and  dumb  who  use  it, 
"  it  still  has  the  force  of  the  original  expression." 


CHAP.  II.  THE   PRINCIPLE   OF  ANTITHESIS.  63 

in  direct  opposition  to  other  movements,  naturally 
assumed  under  an  opposite  frame  of  mind,  is  that  of 
shrugging  the  shoulders.  This  expresses  impotence  or 
an  apology,  —  something  which  cannot  be  done,  or 
cannot  be  avoided.  The  gesture  is  sometimes  used 
consciously  and  voluntarily,  but  it  is  extremely  im- 
probable that  it  was  at  first  deliberately  invented,  and 
afterwards  fixed  by  habit;  for  not  only  do  young 
children  sometimes  shrug  their  shoulders  under  the 
above  states  of  mind,  but  the  movement  is  accompanied, 
as  will  be  shown  in  a  future  chapter,  by  various  subor- 
dinate movements,  which  not  one  man  in  a  thousand  is 
aware  of,  unless  he  has  specially  attended  to  the 
subject. 

Dogs  when  approaching  a  strange  dog,  may  find  it 
useful  to  show  by  their  movements  that  they  are  friendly, 
and  do  not  wish  to  fight.  When  two  young  dogs  in 
play  are  growling  and  biting  each  other's  faces  and  legs, 
it  is  obvious  that  they  mutually  understand  each  other's 
gestures  and  manners.  There  seems,  indeed,  some  degree 
of  instinctive  knowledge  in  puppies  and  kittens,  that 
they  must  not  use  their  sharp  little  teeth  or  claws  too 
freely  in  their  play,  though  this  sometimes  happens  and 
a  squeal  is  the  result ;  otherwise  they  would  often  injure 
each  other's  eyes.  When  my  terrier  bites  my  hand  in 
play,  often  snarling  at  the  same  time,  if  he  bites  too 
hard  and  I  say  gently ,  gently,  he  goes  on  biting,  but 
answers  me  by  a  few  wags  of  the  tail,  which  seems  to 
say  "  Never  mind,  it  is  all  fun."  Although  dogs 
do  thus  express,  and  may  wish  to  express,  to  other 
dogs  and  to  man,  that  they  are  in  a  friendly  state  of 
mind,  it  is  incredible  that  they  could  ever  have  deli- 
berately thought  of  drawing  back  and  depressing  their 
ears,  instead  of  holding  them  erect, — of  lowering  and 
wagging  their  tails,  instead  of  keeping  them  stiff  and 


64  THE   PRINCIPLE   OF   ANTITHESIS.          CHAP.  II 

upright,  &c.,  because  they  knew  that  these  movements 
stood  in  direct  opposition  to  those  assumed  under  an 
opposite  and  savage  frame  of  mind. 

Again,  when  a  cat,  or  rather  when  some  early  pro- 
genitor of  the  species,  from  feeling  affectionate  first 
slightly  arched  its  back,  held  its  tail  perpendicularly 
upwards  and  pricked  its  ears,  can  it  be  believed  that 
the  animal  consciously  wished  thus  to  show  tbat  its 
frame  of  mind  was  directly  the  reverse  of  that,  when 
from  being  ready  to  fight  or  to  spring  on  its  prey,  it 
assumed  a  crouching  attitude,  curled  its  tail  from  side 
to  side  and  depressed  its  ears  ?  Even  still  less  can  I 
believe  that  my  dog  voluntarily  put  on  his  dejected 
attitude  and  "  hot-house  face  "  which  formed  so  complete 
a  contrast  to  his  previous  cheerful  attitude  and  whole 
bearing.  It  cannot  be  supposed  that  he  knew  that  I 
should  understand  his  expression,  and  that  he  could 
thus  soften  my  heart  and  make  me  give  up  visiting  the 
hot-house. 

Hence  for  the  development  of  the  movements  which 
come  under  the  present  head,  some  other  principle, 
distinct  from  the  will  and  consciousness,  must  have 
intervened.  This  principle  appears  to  be  that  every 
movement  which  we  have  voluntarily  performed  through- 
out our  lives  has  required  the  action  of  certain  muscles; 
and  when  we  have  performed  a  directly  opposite  move- 
ment, an  opposite  set  of  muscles  has  been  habitually 
brought  into  play, — as  in  turning  to  the  right  or  to  the 
left,  in  pushing  away  or  pulling  an  object  towards  us, 
and  in  lifting  or  lowering  a  weight.  So  strongly  are 
our  intentions  and  movements  associated  together,  that 
if  we  eagerly  wish  an  object  to  move  in  any  direction, 
we  can  hardly  avoid  moving  our  bodies  in  the  same 
direction,  although  we  may  be  perfectly  aware  that  this 
can  have  no  influence.  A  good  illustration  of  this  fact 


CHAP.  II.  THE   PRINCIPLE   OF  ANTITHESIS.  65 

has  already  been  given  in  the  Introduction,  namely,  in 
the  grotesque  movements  of  a  young  and  eager  billiard- 
player,  whilst  watching  the  course  of  his  ball.  A  man 
or  child  in  a  passion,  if  he  tells  any  one  in  a  loud  voice 
to  begone,  generally  moves  his  arm  as  if  to  pusli  him 
away,  although  the  offender  may  not  be  standing  near, 
and  although  there  may  be  not  the  least  need  to  explain 
by  a  gesture  what  is  meant.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we 
eagerly  desire  some  one  to  approach  us  closely,  we  act 
as  if  pulling  him  towards  us ;  and  so  in  innumerable 
other  instances. 

As  the  performance  of  ordinary  movements  of  an 
opposite  kinrl,  under  opposite  impulses  of  the  will,  has 
become  habitual  in  us  and  in  the  lower  animals,  so  when 
actions  of  one  kind  have  become  firmly  associated  with 
any  sensation  or  emotion,  it  appears  natural  that  actions 
of  a  directly  opposite  kind,  though  of  no  use,  should  be 
unconsciously  performed  through  habit  and  association, 
under  the  influence  of  a  directly  opposite  sensation  or 
emotion.  On  this  principle  alone  can  I  understand 
how  the  gestures  and  expressions  which  come  under 
the  present  head  of  antithesis  have  originated.  If  in- 
deed they  are  serviceable  to  man  or  to  any  other 
animal,  in  aid  of  inarticulate  cries  or  language,  they 
will  likewise  be  voluntarily  employed,  and  the  habit 
will  thus  be  strengthened.  But  whether  or  not  of  ser- 
vice as  a  means  of  communication,  the  tendency  to 
perform  opposite  movements  under  opposite  sensations 
or  emotions  would,  if  we  may  judge  by  analogy, 
become  hereditary  through  long  practice;  and  there 
cannot  be  a  doubt  that  several  expressive  movements 
due  to  the  principle  of  antithesis  are  inherited. 


66  THE   PRINCIPLE   OF  THE   DIRECT          CHAP.  III. 


CHAPTEB  III. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  or  EXPRESSION — concluded. 

The  principle  of  the  direct  action  of  the  exciteo  nervous  system  on 
the  body,  independently  of  the  will  and  in  part  of  habit  — 
Change  of  colour  in  the  hair  —  Trembling  of  the  muscles  — 
Modified  secretions  —  Perspiration  —  Expression  of  extreme  pain 
— Of  rage,  great  joy,  and  terror  —  Contrast  between  the  emotions 
which  cause  and  do  not  cause  expressive  movements  —  Exciting 
and  depressing  states  of  the  mind  —  Summary. 

WE  now  come  to  our  third  Principle,  namely,  that  cer- 
tain actions,  which  we  recognise  as  expressive  of  certain 
states  of  the  mind,  are  the  direct  result  of  the  con- 
stitution of  the  nervous  system,  and  have  been  from  the 
first  independent  of  the  will,  and,  to  a  large  extent,  of 
habit.  When  the  sensorium  is  strongly  excited  nerve- 
force  is  generated  in  excess,  and  is  transmitted  in  certain 
directions,  dependent  on  the  connection  of  the  nerve- 
cells,  and,  as  far  as  the  muscular  system  is  concerned, 
on  the  nature  of  the  movements  which  have  been 
habitually  practised.  Or  the  supply  of  nerve-force  may, 
as  it  appears,  be  interrupted.  Of  course  every  movement 
which  we  make  is  determined  by  the  constitution  of 
the  nervous  system ;  but  actions  performed  in  obe- 
dience to  the  will,  or  through  habit,  or  through  the 
principle  of  antithesis,  are  here  as  far  as  possible  ex- 
cluded. Our  present  subject  is  very  obscure,  but,  from 
its  importance,  must  be  discussed  at  some  little  length  ; 
and  it  is  always  advisable  to  perceive  clearly  our 
ignorance. 

The  most  striking  case,  though  a  rare  and  abnormal 


CHAP.  III.      ACTION  OF  THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  67 

one,  which  can  be  adduced  of  the  direct  influence  of  the 
nervous  system,  when  strongly  affected,  on  the  body,  is 
the  loss  of  colour  in  the  hair,  which  has  occasionally 
been  observed  after  extreme  terror  or  grief.  One 
authentic  instance  has  been  recorded,  in  the  case  of  a 
man  brought  out  for  execution  in  India,  in  which  the 
change  of  colour  was  so  rapid  that  it  was  perceptible 
to  the  eye.1 

Another  good  case  is  that  of  the  trembling  of  the 
muscles,  which  is  common  to  man  and  to  many,  or 
most,  of  the  lower  animals.  Trembling  is  of  no  service, 
often  of  much  disservice,  and  cannot  have  been  at  first 
acquired  through  the  will,  and  then  rendered  habitual 
in  association  with  any  emotion.  I  am  assured  by  an 
eminent  authority  that  young  children  do  not  tremble, 
but  go  into  convulsions  under  the  circumstances  which 
would  induce  excessive  trembling  in  adults.  Trembling 
is  excited  in  different  individuals  in  very  different  de- 
grees, and  by  the  most  diversified  causes, — by  cold  to 
the  surface,  before  fever-fits,  although  the  temperature 
of  the  body  is  then  above  the  normal  standard ;  in 
blood-poisoning,  delirium  tremens,  and  other  diseases; 
by  general  failure  of  power  in  old  age ;  by  exhaustion 
after  excessive  fatigue  ;  locally  from  severe  injuries, 
such  as  burns ;  and,  in  an  especial  manner,  by  the 
passage  of  a  catheter.  Of  all  emotions,  fear  notoriously 
is  the  most  apt  to  induce  trembling ;  but  so  do  occa- 
sionally great  anger  and  joy.  I  remember  once  seeing  a 
boy  who  had  just  shot  his  first  snipe  on  the  wing,  and 
his  hands  trembled  to  such  a  degree  from  delight,  that 
he  could  not  for  some  time  reload  his  gun ;  and  I  have 


1  See  the  interesting  cases  collected  by  M.  G.  Pouchet  in  the  •  Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes,'  January  1,  1872,  p.  79.  An  instance  was  also 
broxight  some  years  ago  before  the  British  Association  at  Belfast. 


68  THE   PRINCIPLE   OF  THE   DIRECT         CHAP.  III. 

heard  of  an  exactly  similar  case  with  an  Australian 
savage,  to  whom  a  gun  had  been  lent.  Fine  music, 
from  the  vague  emotions  thus  excited,  causes  a  shiver 
to  run  down  the  backs  of  some  persons.  There  seems 
to  be  very  little  in  common  in  the  above  several  phy- 
sical causes  and  emotions  to  account  for  trembling ;  and 
Sir  J.  Paget,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  several  of  the 
above  statements,  informs  me  that  the  subject  is  a  very 
obscure  one.  As  trembling  is  sometimes  caused  by 
rage,  long  before  exhaustion  can  have  set  in,  and  as  it 
sometimes  accompanies  great  joy,  it  would  appear  that 
any  strong  excitement  of  the  nervous  system  interrupts 
the  steady  flow  of  nerve-force  to  the  muscles.2 

The  manner  in  which  the  secretions  of  the  alimentary 
canal  and  of  certain  glands — as  the  liver,  kidneys,  or 
mammae — are  affected  by  strong  emotions,  is  another 
excellent  instance  of  the  direct  action  of  the  sensorium 
on  these  organs,  independently  of  the  will  or  of  any 
serviceable  associated  habit.  There  is  the  greatest  dif- 
ference in  different  persons  in  the  parts  which  are  thus 
affected,  and  in  the  degree  of  their  affection. 

The  heart,  which  goes  on  uninterruptedly  beating 
night  and  day  in  so  wonderful  a  manner,  is  extremely 
sensitive  to  external  stimulants.  The  great  physiologist, 
Claude  Bernard,3  has  shown  how  the  least  excitement 
of  a  sensitive  nerve  reacts  on  the  heart ;  even  when  a 
nerve  is  touched  so  slightly  that  no  pain  can  possibly 
be  felt  by  the  animal  under  experiment.  Hence  when 
the  mind  is  strongly  excited,  wo  might  expect  that  it 
would  instantly  affect  in  a  direct  manner  the  heart ; 


2  Miiller  remarks  ('  Elements  of  Physiology,'  Eng.  translat.  vol.  ii. 
p.  934)  that  when  the  feelings  are  very  intense,  "  all  the  spinal  nerves 
*'  become  affected  to  the  extent  of  imperfect  paralyses,  or  the  excitement 
"  of  trembling  of  the  whole  body." 

8  '  Le9ons  sur  les  Prop,  des  Tissus  Vivants,'  1866,  pp.  457-466. 


CHAP.  III.       ACTION  OF   THE   NEKVOUS   SYSTEM.  69 

and  this  is  universally  acknowledged  and  felt  to  be  the 
case.  Claude  Bernard  also  repeatedly  insists,  and  this 
deserves  especial  notice,  that  when  the  heart  is  affected 
it  reacts  on  the  brain ;  and  the  state  of  the  brain  again 
reacts  through  the  pneumo-gastric  nerve  on  the  heart ; 
so  that  under  any  excitement  there  will  be  much  mu- 
tual action  and  reaction  between  these,  the  two  most 
important  organs  of  the  body. 

The  vaso-motor  system,  which  regulates  the  diameter 
of  the  small  arteries,  is  directly  acted  on  by  the  sen- 
sorium,  as  we  see  when  a  man  blushes  from  shame ;  but 
in  this  latter  case  the  checked  transmission  of  nerve- 
force  to  the  vessels  of  the  face  can,  I  think,  be  partly 
explained  in  a  curious  manner  through  habit.  We 
shall  also  be  able  to  throw  some  light,  though  very 
little,  on  the  involuntary  erection  of  the  hair  under  the 
emotions  of  terror  and  rage.  The  secretion  of  tears 
depends,  no  doubt,  on  the  connection  of  certain  nerve- 
cells  ;  but  here  again  we  can  trace  some  few  of  the  steps 
by  which  the  flow  of  nerve-force  through  the  requisite 
channels  has  become  habitual  under  certain  emotions. 

A  brief  consideration  of  the  outward  signs  of  some  of 
the  stronger  sensations  and  emotions  will  best  serve  to 
show  us,  although  vaguely,  in  how  complex  a  manner 
the  principle  under  consideration  of  the  direct  action 
of  the  excited  nervous  system  on  the  body,  is  combined 
with  the  principle  of  habitually  associated,  serviceable 
movements. 

When  animals  suffer  from  an  agony  of  pain,  they 
generally  writhe  about  with  frightful  contortions ;  and 
those  which  habitually  use  their  voices  utter  piercing 
cries  or  groans.  Almost  every  muscle  of  the  body 
is  brought  into  strong  action.  With  man  the  mouth 
may  be  closely  compressed,  or  more  commonly  the 


70  THE  PRINCIPLE   OF   THE   DIRECT         CHAP.  111. 

lips  are  retracted,  with  the  teeth  clenched  or  ground 
together.  There  is  said  to  be  "  gnashing  of  teeth  "  iu 
hell;  and  I  have  plainly  heard  the  grinding  of  the 
molar  teeth  of  a  cow  which  was  suffering  acutely  from 
inflammation  of  the  bowels.  The  female  hippopotamus 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  when  she  produced  her 
young,  suffered  greatly ;  she  incessantly  walked  about, 
or  rolled  on  her  sides,  opening  and  closing  her  jaws,  and 
clattering  her  teeth  together.4  With  man  the  eyes 
stare  wildly  as  in  horrified  astonishment,  or  the  brows 
are  heavily  contracted.  Perspiration  bathes  the  body, 
and  drops  trickle  down  the  face.  The  circulation  and 
respiration  are  much  affected.  Hence  the  nostrils  are 
generally  dilated  and  often  quiver ;  or  the  breath  may 
be  held  until  the  blood  stagnates  in  the  purple  face. 
If  the  agony  be  severe  and  prolonged,  these  signs 
all  change ;  utter  prostration  follows,  with  fainting  or 
convulsions. 

A  sensitive  nerve  when  irritated  transmits  some 
influence  to  the  nerve-cell,  whence  it  proceeds;  and 
this  transmits  its  influence,  first  to  the  corresponding 
nerve-cell  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body,  and  then 
upwards  and  downwards  along  the  cerebro-spinal  column 
to  other  nerve-cells,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  according 
to  the  strength  of  the  excitement ;  so  that,  ultimately, 
the  whole  nervous  system  may  be  affected.5  This 
involuntary  transmission  of  nerve-force  may  or  may 
not  be  accompanied  by  consciousness.  Why  the  irri- 
tation of  a  nerve-cell  should  generate  or  liberate  nerve- 


4  Mr.  Bartlett,  "Notes  on  the  Birth  of  a  Hippopotamus,"  Proc. 
Zoolog.  Soc.  1871,  p.  255. 

6  See,  on  this  subject,  Claude  Bernard,  '  Tissus  Vivants/  1866,  pp. 
316,  337,  358.  Virchow  expresses  himself  to  almost  exactly  the  same 
effect  in  his  essay  "  Ueber  das  Riickenmark  "  (Sammhmg  wissenschaft. 
Vortrage,  1871,  a.  28). 


CHAP.  III.      ACTION   OF   THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  71 

force  is  not  known ;  but  that  this  is  the  case  seems 
to  be  the  conclusion  arrived  at  by  all  the  greatest 
physiologists,  such  as  Muller,  Virchow,  Bernard,  &c.6 
As  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  remarks,  it  may  be  received 
as  an  "  unquestionable  truth  that,  at  any  moment,  the 
"  existing  quantity  of  liberated  nerve-force,  which  in 
"  an  inscrutable  way  produces  in  us  the  state  we  call 
"  feeling,  must  expend  itself  in  some  direction — must 
"  generate  an  equivalent  manifestation  of  force  some- 
"  where ; "  so  that,  when  the  cerebro-spinal  system  is 
highly  excited  and  nerve-force  is  liberated  in  excess, 
it  may  be  expended  in  intense  sensations,  active 
thought,  violent  movements,  or  increased  activity  of 
the  glands.7  Mr.  Spencer  further  maintains  that  an 
"  overflow  of  nerve-force,  undirected  by  any  motive, 
"  will  manifestly  take  the  most  habitual  routes ;  and,  if 
"  these  do  not  suffice,  will  next  overflow  into  the  less 
"  habitual  ones."  Consequently  the  facial  and  respira- 
tory muscles,  which  are  the  most  used,  will  be  apt  to 
be  first  brought  into  action;  then  those  of  the  upper 
extremities,  next  those  of  the  lower,  and  finally  those  of 
the  whole  body.8 

An  emotion  may  be  very  strong,  but  it  will  have 
little  tendency  to  induce  movements  of  any  kind,  if  it 
lias  not  commonly  led  to  voluntary  action  for  its  relief  or 
gratification;  and  when  movements  are  excited,  their 

8  Muller  ('  Elements  of  Physiology/  Eng.  translat.  vol.  ii.  p.  932)  in 
speaking  of  the  nerves,  says,  "  any  sudden  change  of  condition  of 
"  whatever  kind  sets  the  nervous  principle  into  action."  See  Virchow 
and  Bernard  on  the  same  subject  in  passaged  in  the  two  works  referred 
to  in  my  last  foot-note. 

7  H.  Spencer,  4  Essays,  Scientific,  Political,'  &c.,  Second  Series,  1863, 
pp.  109.  111. 

8  Sir  H.  Holland,  in  speaking  ('  Medical  Notes  and  Keflexions/ 
1839,  p.  328)  of  that  curious  state  of  body  called  the  fidget*,  remarks 
that  it  seems  due  to  "  an  accumulation  of  some  cause  of  irritation 
"  which  requires  muscular  action  for  its  relief." 


72  THE   PRINCIPLE   OF  THE   DIRECT         CHAP.  III. 

nature  is,  to  a  large  extent,  determined  by  those  which 
have  often  and  voluntarily  been  performed  for  some 
definite  end  under  the  same  emotion.  Great  pain  urges 
all  animals,  and  has  urged  them  during  endless  genera- 
tions, to  make  the  most  violent  and  diversified  efforts  to 
escape  from  the  cause  of  suffering.  Even  when  a  limb 
or  other  separate  part  of  the  body  is  hurt,  we  often  see 
a  tendency  to  shake  it,  as  if  to  shake  off  the  cause, 
though  this  may  obviously  be  impossible.  Thus  a  habit 
of  exerting  with  the  utmost  force  all  the  muscles  will 
have  been  established,  whenever  great  suffering  is  ex- 
perienced. As  the  muscles  of  the  chest  and  vocal 
organs  are  habitually  used,  these  will  be  particularly 
liable  to  be  acted  on,  and  loud,  harsh  screams  or  cries 
will  be  uttered.  But  the  advantage  derived  from  out- 
cries has  here  probably  come  into  play  in  an  important 
manner;  for  the  young  of  most  animals,  when  in  dis- 
tress or  danger,  call  loudly  to  their  parents  for  aid,  as 
do  the  members  of  the  same  community  for  mutual  aid. 

Another  principle,  namely,  the  internal  consciousness 
that  the  power  or  capacity  of  the  nervous  system  is 
limited,  will  have  strengthened,  though  in  a  subordinate 
degree,  the  tendency  to  violent  action  under  extreme 
suffering.  A  man  cannot  think  deeply  and  exert  his 
utmost  muscular  force.  As  Hippocrates  long  ago  ob- 
served, if  two  pains  are  felt  at  the  same  time,  the 
severer  one  dulls  the  other.  Martyrs,  in  the  ecstasy  of 
their  religious  fervour  have  often,  as  it  would  appear, 
been  insensible  to  the  most  horrid  tortures.  Sailors 
who  are  going  to  be  flogged  sometimes  take  a  piece  of 
lead  into  their  mouths,  in  order  to  bite  it  with  their 
utmost  force,  and  thus  to  bear  the  pain.  Parturient 
women  prepare  to  exert  their  muscles  to  the  utmost  in 
order  to  relieve  their  sufferings. 

We  thus  see  that  the  undirected  radiation  of  nerve 


CHAP.  III.      ACTION   OF   THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  73 

force  from  the  nerve-cells  which  are  first  affected — 
the  long-continued  habit  of  attempting  by  struggling 
to  escape  from  the  cause  of  suffering — and  the  con- 
sciousness that  voluntary  muscular  exertion  relieves 
pain,  have  all  probably  concurred  in  giving  a  tendency 
to  the  most  violent,  almost  convulsive,  movements 
under  extreme  suffering ;  and  such  movements,  in- 
cluding those  of  the  vocal  organs,  are  universally  recog- 
nised as  highly  expressive  of  this  condition. 

As  the  mere  touching  of  a  sensitive  nerve  reacts  in  a 
direct  manner  on  the  heart,  severe  pain  will  obviously 
react  on  it  in  like  manner,  but  far  more  energetically. 
Nevertheless,  even  in  this  case,  we  must  not  overlook 
the  indirect  effects  of  habit  on  the  heart,  as  we  shall 
see  when  we  consider  the  signs  of  rage. 

When  a  man  suffers  from  an  agony  of  pain,  the  per- 
spiration often  trickles  down  his  face ;  and  I  have  been 
assured  by  a  veterinary  surgeon  that  he  has  frequently 
seen  drops  falling  from  the  belly  and  running  down  the 
inside  of  the  thighs  of  horses,  and  from  the  bodies  of 
cattle,  when  thus  suffering.  He  has  observed  this,  when 
there  has  been  no  struggling  which  would  account  for 
the  perspiration.  The  whole  body  of  the  female  hippo- 
potamus, before  alluded  to,  was  covered  with  red-coloured 
perspiration  whilst  giving  birth  to  her  young.  So  it  is 
with  extreme  fear ;  the  same  veterinary  has  often  seen 
horses  sweating  from  this  cause;  as  has  Mr.  Bartlett 
with  the  rhinoceros ;  and  with  man  it  is  a  well-known 
symptom.  The  cause  of  perspiration  bursting  forth  in 
these  cases  is  quite  obscure ;  but  it  is  thought  by  some 
physiologists  to  be  connected  with  the  failing  power  of 
the  capillary  circulation ;  and  we  know  that  the  vaso- 
motor  system,  which  regulates  the  capillary  circulation, 
is  much  influenced  by  the  mind.  With  respect  to  the 
movements  of  certain  muscles  of  the  face  under  great 


74  THE   PRINCIPLE   OF   THE   DIRECT         CHAP.  IIL 

suffering,  as  well  as  from  other  emotions,  these  will  be 
best  considered  when  we  treat  of  the  special  expressions 
of  man  and  of  the  lower  animals. 

We  will  now  turn  to  the  characteristic  symptoms  of 
.Rage.  Under  this  powerful  emotion  the  action  of  the 
heart  is  much  accelerated,9  or  it  may  be  much  dis- 
turbed. The  face  reddens,  or  it  becomes  purple  from  the 
impeded  return  of  the  blood,  or  may  turn  deadly  pale. 
The  respiration  is  laboured,  the  chest  heaves,  and  the 
dilated  nostrils  quiver.  The  whole  body  often  trembles. 
The  voice  is  affected.  The  teeth  are  clenched  or  ground 
together,  and  the  muscular  system  is  commonly  stimu- 
lated to  violent,  almost  frantic  action.  But  the  gestures 
of  a  man  in  this  state  usually  differ  from  the  purposeless 
writhings  and  struggles  of  one  suffering  from  an  agony 
of  pain ;  for  they  represent  more  or  less  plainly  the  act 
of  striking  or  fighting  with  an  enemy. 

All  these  signs  of  rage  are  probably  in  large  part, 
and  some  of  them  appear  to  be  wholly,  due  to  the 
direct  action  of  the  excited  sensorium.  But  animals 
of  all  kinds,  and  their  progenitors  before  them,  when 
attacked  or  threatened  by  an  enemy,  have  exerted  their 
utmost  powers  in  fighting  and  in  defending  themselves. 
Unless  an  animal  does  thus  act,  or  has  the  intention,  or 
at  least  the  desire,  to  attack  its  enemy,  it  cannot  pro- 
perly be  said  to  be  enraged.  An  inherited  habit  of 
muscular  exertion  will  thus  have  been  gained  in  asso- 
ciation with  rage ;  and  this  will  directly  or  indirectly 
affect  various  organs,  in  nearly  the  same  manner  as 
does  great  bodily  suffering. 

The  heart  no  doubt  will  likewise  be  affected  in  a  direct 


9  I  am  much  indebted  to  Mr.  A.  H.  Garrod  for  having  informed  me 
of  M.  Lorain's  work  on  the  pulse,  in  which  a  sphygmogram  of  a  woman 
in  a  rage  is  given;  and  this  shows  much  difference  in  the  rate  and 
other  characters  from  that  of  the  same  woman  in  her  ordinary  state. 


CHAP.  III.       ACTION   OF   THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  75 

manner ;  but  it  will  also  in  all  probability  be  affected 
through  habit;  and  all  the  more  so  from  not  being 
under  the  control  of  the  will.  We  know  that  any  great 
exertion  which  we  voluntarily  make,  affects  the  heart, 
through  mechanical  and  other  principles  which  need 
not  here  be  considered ;  and  it  was  shown  in  the  first 
chapter  that  nerve-force  flows  readily  through  habitu- 
ally used  channels,  —  through  the  nerves  of  volun- 
tary or  involuntary  movement,  and  through  those  of 
sensation.  Thus  even  a  moderate  amount  of  exertion 
will  tend  to  act  on  the  heart ;  and  on  the  principle  of 
association,  of  which  so  many  instances  have  been  given, 
we  may  feel  nearly  sure  that  any  sensation  or  emotion, 
as  great  pain  or  rage,  which  has  habitually  led  to  much 
muscular  action,  will  immediately  influence  the  flow  of 
nerve-force  to  the  heart,  although  there  may  not  be  at 
the  time  any  muscular  exertion. 

The  heart,  as  I  have  said,  will  be  all  the  more  readily 
affected  through  habitual  associations,  as  it  is  not  under 
the  control  of  the  will.  A  man  when  moderately  angry, 
or  even  when  enraged,  may  command  the  movements  of 
his  body,  but  he  cannot  prevent  his  heart  from  beating 
rapidly.  His  chest  will  perhaps  give  a  few  heaves,  and 
his  nostrils  just  quiver,  for  the  movements  of  respiration 
are  only  in  part  voluntary.  In  like  manner  those 
muscles  of  the  face  which  are  least  obedient  to  the  will, 
will  sometimes  alone  betray  a  slight  and  passing  emo- 
tion. The  glands  again  are  -  wholly  independent  of 
the  will,  and  a  man  suffering  from  grief  may  command 
his  features,  but  cannot  always  prevent  the  tears  from 
coming  into  his  eyes.  A  hungry  man,  if  tempting  food 
is  placed  before  him,  may  not  show  his  hunger  by  any 
outward  gesture,  but  he  cannot  check  the  secretion  of 
saliva. 

Under  a  transport  of  Joy  or  of  vivid  Pleasure,  there  is  u 


76  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  THE   DIRECT         CHAP.  III. 

strong  tendency  to  various  purposeless  movements,  and 
to  the  utterance  of  various  sounds.  We  see  this  in  our 
young  children,  in  their  loud  laughter,  clapping  of  hands, 
and  jumping  for  joy ;  in  the  bounding  and  barking  of  a 
dog  when  going  out  to  walk  with  his  master ;  and  in  the 
frisking  of  a  horse  when  turned  out  into  an  open  field. 
Joy  quickens  the  circulation,  and  this  stimulates  the 
brain,  which  again  reacts  on  the  whole  body.  The 
above  purposeless  movements  and  increased  heart-action 
may  be  attributed  in  chief  part  to  the  excited  state  of 
the  sensorium,10  and  to  the  consequent  undirected  over- 
flow, as  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  insists,  of  nerve-force.  It 
deserves  notice,  that  it  is  chiefly  the  anticipation  of  a 
pleasure,  and  not  its  actual  enjoyment,  which  leads  to 
purposeless  and  extravagant  movements  of  the  body, 
and  to  the  utterance  of  various  sounds.  We  see  this 
in  our  children  when  they  expect  any  great  pleasure  or 
treat ;  and  dogs,  which  have  been  bounding  about  at 
the  sight  of  a  plate  of  food,  when  they  get  it  do  not 
show  their  delight  by  any  outward  sign,  not  even  by 
wagging  their  tails.  Now  with  animals  of  all  kinds, 
the  acquirement  of  almost  all  their  pleasures,  with  the 

10  How  powerfully  intense  joy  excites  the  brain,  and  how  the  brain 
reacts  on  the  body,  is  well  shown  in  the  rare  cases  of  Psychical  Intox'ca- 
tion.  Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne  ('  Medical  Mirror,'  1865)  records  the  ease 
of  a  young  man  of  strongly  nervous  temperament,  who,  on  hearing  by  a 
telegram  that  a  fortune  had  been  bequeathed  him,  first  became  pale, 
then  exhilarated,  and  soon  in  the  highest  spirits,  but  flushed  and  very 
restless.  He  then  took  a  walk  with  a  friend  for  the  sake  of  tranquil- 
Using  himself,  but  returned  staggering  in  Ids  gait,  uproariously  laugh- 
ing, yet  irritable  in  temper,  incessantly  talking,  and  singing  loudly 
in  the  public  streets.  It  was  positively  ascertained  that  he  had 
not  touched  any  spirituous  liquor,  though  every  one  thought  that  he 
was  intoxicated.  Vomiting  after  a  time  came  on,  and  the  half-digested 
contents  of  his  stomach  were  examined,  but  no  odour  of  alcohol 
could  be  detected.  He  then  slept  heavily,  and  on  awaking  was  well, 
except  that  he  suffered  from  headache,  nausea,  and  prostration  of 
strength. 


CHAP.  III.       ACTION   OF   THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  77 

exception  of  those  of  warmth  and  rest,  are  associated, 
and  have  long  been  associated  with  active  movements, 
as  in  the  hunting  or  search  for  food,  and  in  their 
courtship.  Moreover,  the  mere  exertion  of  the  muscles 
after  long  rest  or  confinement  is  in  itself  a  pleasure,  as 
we  ourselves  feel,  and  as  we  see  in  the  play  of  young 
animals.  Therefore  on  this  latter  principle  alone  we 
might  perhaps  expect,  that  vivid  pleasure  would  be  apt 
to  show  itself  conversely  in  muscular  movements. 

With  all  or  almost  all  animals,  even  with  birds, 
Terror  causes  the  body  to  tremble.  The  skin  becomes 
pale,  sweat  breaks  out,  and  the  hair  bristles.  The 
secretions  of  the  alimentary  canal  and  of  the  kidneys  are 
increased,  and  they  are  involuntarily  voided,  owing  to  the 
relaxation  of  the  sphincter  muscles,  as  is  known  to  be 
the  case  with  man,  and  as  I  have  seen  with  cattle,  dogs, 
cats,  and  monkeys.  The  breathing  is  hurried.  The  heart 
beats  quickly,  wildly,  and  violently;  but  whether  it 
pumps  the  blood  more  efficiently  through  the  body  may 
be  doubted,  for  the  surface  seems  bloodless  and  the 
strength  of  the  muscles  soon  fails.  In  a  frightened  horse 
I  have  felt  through  the  saddle  the  beating  of  the  heart 
so  plainly  that  I  could  have  counted  the  beats.  The 
mental  faculties  are  much  disturbed.  Utter  prostration 
soon  follows,  and  even  fainting.  A  terrified  canary-bird 
has  been  seen  not  only  to  tremble  and  to  turn  white 
about  the  base  of  the  bill,  but  to  faint ; n  and  I  once 
caught  a  robin  in  a  room,  which  fainted  so  completely, 
that  for  a  time  I  thought  it  dead. 

Most  of  these  symptoms  are  probably  the  direct  result, 
independently  of  habit,  of  the  disturbed  state  of  the 
Bensorium  ;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  ought  to  be 
wholly  thus  accounted  for.  When  an  animal  is  alarmed 


11  Dr.  Danviu,  '  Zoonomia/  1794,  vol.  i.  p.  148. 


78  THE  PKINCIPLE   OF   THE   DIKECT         CHAP.  111. 

it  almost  always  stands  motionless  for  a  moment,  in 
order  to  collect  its  senses  and  to  ascertain  the  source 
of  danger,  and  sometimes  for  the  sake  of  escaping 
detection.  But  headlong  flight  soon  follows,  with  no 
husbanding  of  the  strength  as  in  fighting,  and  the 
animal  continues  to  fly  as  long  as  the  danger  lasts, 
until  utter  prostration,  \vith  failing  respiration  and 
circulation,  with  all  the  muscles  quivering  and  profuse 
sweating,  renders  further  flight  impossible.  Hence  it 
does  not  seem  improbable  that  the  principle  of  asso- 
ciated habit  may  in  part  account  for,  or  at  least 
augment,  some  of  the  above-named  characteristic  symp- 
toms of  extreme  terror. 

That  the  principle  of  associated  habit  has  played  an 
important  part  in  causing  the  movements  expressive  of 
the  foregoing  several  strong  emotions  and  sensations, 
we  may,  I  think,  conclude  from  considering  firstly, 
some  other  strong  emotions  which  do  not  ordinarily 
require  for  their  relief  or  gratification  any  voluntary 
movement ;  and  secondly  the  contrast  in  nature  between 
the  so-called  exciting  and  depressing  states  of  the 
mind.  No  emotion  is  stronger  than  maternal  love; 
but  a  mother  may  feel  the  deepest  love  for  her  helpless 
infant,  and  yet  not  show  it  by  any  outward  sign;  or 
only  by  slight  caressing  movements,  with  a  gentle 
smile  and  tender  eyes.  But  let  any  one  intentionally 
injure  her  infant,  and  see  what  a  change !  how  she 
starts  up  with  threatening  aspect,  how  her  eyes  sparkle 
and  her  face  reddens,  how  her  bosom  heaves,  nostrils 
dilate,  and  heart  beats;  for  anger,  and  not  maternal 
love,  has  habitually  led  to  action.  The  love  between 
the  opposite  sexes  is  widely  different  from  maternal 
love ;  and  when  lovers  meet,  we  know  that  their  hearts 
beat  quickly,  their  breathing  is  hurried,  and  their  faces 


CHAP.  III.       ACTION   OF   THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  79 

flush ;  for  this  love  is  not  inactive  like  that  of  a  mother 
for  her  infant. 

A  man  may  have  his  mind  filled  with  the  blackest 
hatred  or  suspicion,  or  be  corroded  with  envy  or  jealousy, 
but  as  these  feelings  do  not  at  once  lead  to  action,  and  as 
they  commonly  last  for  some  time,  they  are  not  shown 
by  any  outward  sign,  excepting  that  a  man  in  this  state 
assuredly  does  not  appear  cheerful  or  good-tempered. 
If  indeed  these  feelings  break  out  into  overt  acts, 
rage  takes  their  place,  and  will  be  plainly  exhibited. 
Painters  can  hardly  portray  suspicion,  jealousy,  envy, 
&c.,  except  by  the  aid  of  accessories  which  tell  the 
tale;  and  poets  use  such  vague  and  fanciful  expres- 
sions as  "green-eyed  jealousy."  Spenser  describes 
suspicion  as  "Foul,  ill-favoured,  and  grim,  under  his 
"  eyebrows  looking  still  askance,"  &c. ;  Shakespeare 
speaks  of  envy  "  as  lean-faced  in  her  loathsome  case ;" 
and  in  another  place  he  says,  "  no  black  envy  shall 
"  make  my  grave ;"  and  again  as  "  above  pale  envy's 
"  threatening  reach." 

Emotions  and  sensations  have  often  been  classed  as 
exciting  or  depressing.  When  all  the  organs  of  the 
body  and  mind, — those  of  voluntary  and  involuntary 
movement,  of  perception,  sensation,  thought,  &c., — 
perform  their  functions  more  energetically  and  rapidly 
than  usual,  a  man  or  animal  may  be  said  to  be  excited, 
and,  under  an  opposite  state,  to  be  depressed.  Anger 
and  joy  are  from  the  first  exciting  emotions,  and  they 
naturally  lead,  more  especially  the  former,  to  energetic 
movements,  which  react  on  the  heart  and  this  again 
on  the  brain.  A  physician  once  remarked  to  me  as  a 
proof  of  the  exciting  nature  of  anger,  that  a  man  when 
excessively  jaded  will  sometimes  invent  imaginary 
offences  and  put  himself  into  a  passion,  unconsciously 
for  the  sake  of  reinvigorating  himself;  and  since 


80  THE   PKINCIPLE   OF   THE   DIKECT         CHAP.  IIL 

hearing  this  remark,  I  have  occasionally  recognized 
its  full  truth. 

Several  other  states  of  mind  appear  to  be  at  first 
exciting,  but  soon  become  depressing  to  an  extreme 
degree.  When  a  mother  suddenly  loses  her  child, 
sometimes  she  is  frantic  with  grief,  and  must  be  con- 
sidered to  be  in  an  excited  state;  she  walks  wildly 
about,  tears  her  hair  or  clothes,  and  wrings  her  hands. 
This  latter  action  is  perhaps  due  to  the  principle  of 
antithesis,  betraying  an  inward  sense  of  helplessness 
and  that  nothing  can  be  done.  The  other  wild  and 
violent  movements  may  be  in  part  explained  by  the 
relief  experienced  through  muscular  exertion,  and  in 
part  by  the  undirected  overflow  of  nerve-force  from  the 
excited  sensorium.  But  under  the  sudden  loss  of  a 
beloved  person,  one  of  the  first  and  commonest  thoughts 
which  occurs,  is  that  something  more  might  have  been 
done  to  save  the  lost  one.  An  excellent  observer,12 
in  describing  the  behaviour  of  a  girl  at  the  sudden 
death  of  her  father,  says  she  "  went  about  the  house 
"  wringing  her  hands  like  a  creature  demented,  saying 
"  'It  was  her  fault;'  'I  should  never  have  left  him;' 
"  '  If  I  had  only  sat  up  with  him,' "  &c.  With  such 
ideas  vividly  present  before  the  mind,  there  would  arise, 
through  the  principle  of  associated  habit,  the  strongest 
tendency  to  energetic  action  of  some  kind. 

As  soon  as  the  sufferer  is  fully  conscious  that  nothing 
can  be  done,  despair  or  deep  sorrow  takes  the  place  of 
frantic  grief.  The  sufferer  sits  motionless,  or  gently 
rocks  to  and  fro ;  the  circulation  becomes  languid ; 
respiration  is  almost  forgotten,  and  deep  sighs  are  drawn. 
All  this  reacts  on  the  brain,  and  prostration  soon 
follows  with  collapsed  muscles  and  dulled  eyes.  As 


13  Mrs.  Oliphant,  iu  her  novel  of 'Miss  Majoril  anks,'  p.  362. 


CHAP.  III.       ACTION   OF   THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  81 

associated  habit  no  logger  prompts  the  sufferer  to 
action,  he  is  urged  by  his  friends  to  voluntary  exertion, 
and  not  to  give  way  to  silent,  motionless  grief.  Exer- 
tion stimulates  the  heart,  and  this  reacts  on  the  brain, 
and  aids  the  mind  to  bear  its  heavy  load. 

Pain,  if  severe,  soon  induces  extreme  depression  or 
prostration ;  but  it  is  at  first  a  stimulant  and  excites  to 
action,  as  we  see  when  we  whip  a  horse,  and  as  is  shown 
by  the  horrid  tortures  inflicted  in  foreign  lands  on  ex- 
hausted dray- bullocks,  to  rouse  them  to  renewed  exertion. 
Fear  again  is  the  most  depressing  of  all  the  emotions ; 
and  it  soon  induces  utter,  helpless  prostration,  as  if  in 
consequence  of,  or  in  association  with,  the  most  violent 
and  prolonged  attempts  to  escape  from  the  danger, 
though  no  such  attempts  have  actually  been  made. 
Nevertheless,  even  extreme  fear  often  acts  at  first  as  a 
powerful  stimulant.  A  man  or  animal  driven  through 
terror  to  desperation,  is  endowed  with  wonderful 
strength,  and  is  notoriously  dangerous  in  the  highest 
degree. 

On  the  whole  we  may  conclude  that  the  principle  of 
the  direct  action  of  the  sensorium  on  the  body,  due  to 
the  constitution  of  the  nervous  system,  and  from  the  first 
independent  of  the  will,  has  been  highly  influential  in 
determining  many  expressions.  Good  instances  are 
afforded  by  the  trembling  of  the  muscles,  the  sweating 
of  the  skin,  the  modified  secretions  of  the  alimentary 
canal  and  glands,  under  various  emotions  and  sensations. 
But  actions  of  this  kind  are  often  combined  with  others, 
which  follow  from  our  first  principle,  namely,  that  actions 
which  have  often  been  of  direct  or  indirect  service,  under 
certain  states  of  the  mind,  in  order  to  gratify  or  relieve 
certain  sensations,  desires,  &c.,  are  still  performed  under 
analogous  circumstances  through  mere  habit  although 


82  ACTION   OF   THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM.      CHAP.  III. 

of  no  service.  We  have  combinations  of  this  kind,  at  least 
in  part,  in  the  frantic  gestures  of  rage  and  in  the  writhings 
of  extreme  pain ;  and,  perhaps,  in  the  increased  action  of 
the  heart  and  of  the  respiratory  organs.  Even  when 
these  and  other  emotions  or  sensations  are  aroused  in  a 
very  feeble  manner,  there  will  still  be  a  tendency  to  simi- 
lar actions,  owing  to  the  force  of  long-associated  habit ; 
and  those  actions  which  are  least  under  voluntary  control 
will  generally  be  longest  retained.  Our  second  principle 
of  antithesis  has  likewise  occasionally  come  into  play. 

Finally,  so  many  expressive  movements  can  be  ex- 
plained, as  I  trust  will  be  seen  in  the  course  of  this 
volume,  through  the  three  principles  which  have  now 
been  discussed,  that  we  may  hope  hereafter  to  see  all 
thus  explained,  or  by  closely  analogous  principles.  It  is, 
however,  often  impossible  to  decide  how  much  weight 
ought  to  be  attributed,  in  each  particular  case,  to  one 
of  our  principles,  and  how  much  to  another ;  and  very 
many  points  in  the  theory  of  Expression  remain  inex- 
plicable. 


CH\P.  IV.        MEANS  OF   EXPRESSION   IN  ANIMALS.  83 


CHAPTER    IY. 

MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  IN  ANIMALS. 

The  emission  of  sounds  —  Vocal  sounds  —  Sounds  otherwise  pro- 
duced—  Erection  of  the  dermal  appendages,  hairs,  feathers,  &c., 
under  the  emotions  of  anger  and  terror  —  The  drawing  back  oi 
the  ears  as  a  preparation  for  fighting,  and  as  an  expression 
of  anger  —  Erection  of  the  ears  and  raising  the  head,  a  sign  of 
attention. 

IN  this  and  the  following  chapter  I  will  describe,  but 
only  in  sufficient  detail  to  illustrate  my  subject,  the 
expressive  movements,  under  different  states  of  the 
mind,  of  some  few  well-known  animals.  But  before 
considering  them  in  due  succession,  it  will  save  much 
useless  repetition  to  discuss  certain  means  of  expression 
common  to  most  of  them. 

The  emission  of  Sounds. — With  many  kinds  of  ani- 
mals, man  included,  the  vocal  organs  are  efficient  in 
the  highest  degree  as  a  means  of  expression.  We  have 
seen,  in  the  last  chapter,  that  when  the  sensorium  is 
strongly  excited,  the  muscles  of  the  body  are  generally 
thrown  into  violent  action  ;  and  as  a  consequence,  loud 
sounds  are  uttered,  however  silent  the  animal  may 
generally  be,  and  although  the  sounds  may  be  of  no 
use.  Hares  and  rabbits  for  instance,  never,  I  believe, 
use  their  vocal  organs  except  in  the  extremity  of 
suffering;  as,  when  a  wounded  hare  is  killed  by  the 
sportsman,  or  when  a  young  rabbit  is  caught  by  a 
stoat.  Cattle  and  horses  suffer  great  pain  in  silence , 
but  when  this  is  excessive,  and  especially  when  asso- 
ciated with  terror,  they  utter  fearful  sounds.  I  have 


84  MEANS  OF   EXPEESSION  CHAP.  IV. 

often  recognized,  from  a  distance  on  the  Pampas,  the 
agonized  death-bellow  of  the  cattle,  when  caught  by 
the  lasso  and  hamstrung.  It  is  said  that  horses,  when 
attacked  by  wolves,  utter  loud  and  peculiar  screams  of 
distress. 

Involuntary  and  purposeless  contractions  of  the 
muscles  of  the  chest  and  glottis,  excited  in  the  above 
manner,  may  have  first  given  rise  to  the  emission  of 
vocal  sounds.  But  the  voice  is  now  largely  used  by 
many  animals  for  various  purposes ;  and  habit  seems  to 
have  played  an  important  part  in  its  employment 
under  other  circumstances.  Naturalists  have  remarked, 
I  believe  with  truth,  that  social  animals,  from  habitually 
using  their  vocal  organs  as  a  means  of  intercommunica- 
tion, use  them  on  other  occasions  much  more  freely 
than  other  animals.  But  there  are  marked  excep- 
tions to  this  rule,  for  instance,  with  the  rabbit.  The 
principle,  also,  of  association,  which  is  so  widely  extended 
in  its  power,  has  likewise  played  its  part.  Hence  it 
follows  that  the  voice,  from  having  been  habitually 
employed  as  a  serviceable  aid  under  certain  conditions, 
inducing  pleasure,  pain,  rage,  &c.,  is  commonly  used 
whenever  the  same  sensations  or  emotions  are  excited, 
under  quite  different  conditions,  or  in  a  lesser  degree. 

The  sexes  of  many  animals  incessantly  call  for  each 
other  during  the  breeding-season;  and  in  not  a  few 
cases,  the  male  endeavours  thus  to  charm  or  excite  the 
female.  This,  indeed,  seems  to  have  been  the  primeval 
use  and  means  of  development  of  the  voice,  as  I  have 
attempted  to  show  in  my  *  Descent  of  Man.'  Thus  the 
use  of  the  vocal  organs  will  have  become  associated 
with  the  anticipation  of  the  strongest  pleasure  which 
animals  are  capable  of  feeling.  Animals  which  live  in 
society  often  call  to  each  other  when  separated,  and 
evidently  feel  much  joy  at  meeting ;  as  we  see  with  a 


CHAP.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  85 

horse,  on  the  return  of  his  companion,  for  whom  he  has 
been  neighing.  The  mother  calls  incessantly  for  hei 
lost  young  ones;  for  instance,  a  cow  for  her  calf;  and 
the  young  of  many  animals  call  for  their  mothers. 
When  a  flock  of  sheep  is  scattered,  the  ewes  bleat 
incessantly  for  their  lambs,  and  their  mutual  pleasure 
at  coming  together  is  manifest.  Woe  betide  the  man 
who  meddles  with  the  young  of  the  larger  and  fiercer 
quadrupeds,  if  they  hear  the  cry  of  distress  from 
their  young.  Eage  leads  to  the  violent  exertion  of  all 
the  muscles,  including  those  of  the  voice;  and  some 
animals,  when  enraged,  endeavour  to  strike  terror  into 
their  enemies  by  its  power  and  harshness,  as  the  lion 
does  by  roaring,  and  the  dog  by  growling.  I  infer  that 
their  .object  is  to  strike  terror,  because  the  lion  at  the 
same  time  erects  the  hair  of  its  mane,  and  the  dog 
the  hair  along  its  back,  and  thus  they  make  themselves 
appear  as  large  and  terrible  as  possible.  Kival  males 
try  to  excel  and  challenge  each  other  by  their  voices, 
and  this  leads  to  deadly  contests.  Thus  the  use  of  the 
voice  will  have  become  associated  with  the  emotion  of 
anger,  however  it  may  be  aroused.  We  have  also  seen 
that  intense  pain,  like  rage,  leads  to  violent  outcries, 
and  the  exertion  of  screaming  by  itself  gives  some 
relief;  and  thus  the  use  of  the  voice  will  have  become 
associated  with  suffering  of  any  kind. 

The  cause  of  widely  different  sounds  being  uttered 
under  different  emotions  and  sensations  is  a  very 
obscure  subject.  Nor  does  the  rule  always  hold  good 
that  there  is  any  marked  difference.  For  instance 
with  the  dog,  the  bark  of  anger  and  that  of  joy  do 
not  differ  much,  though  they  can  be  distinguished. 
It  is  not  probable  that  any  precise  explanation  of  the 
cause  or  source  of  each  particular  sound,  under  different 
states  of  the  mind,  will  ever  be  given.  We  know  that 


86  MEANS  OF   EXPKESSION  CHAP.  IV. 

some  animals,  after  being  domesticated,  have  acquired 
the  habit  of  uttering  sounds  which  were  not  natural 
to  them.1  Thus  domestic  dogs,  and  even  tamed  jackals, 
have  learnt  to  bark,  which  is  a  noise  not  proper  to  any 
species  of  the  genus,  with  the  exception  of  the  Canis 
latrans  of  North  America,  which  is  said  to  bark.  Some 
breeds,  also,  of  the  domestic  pigeon  have  learnt  to  coo 
in  a  new  and  quite  peculiar  manner. 

The  character  of  the  human  voice,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  various  emotions,  has  been  discussed  by 
Mr.  Herbert  Spencer2  in  his  interesting  essay  on 
Music.  He  clearly  shows  that  the  voice  alters  much 
under  different  conditions,  in  loudness  and  in  quality, 
that  is,  in  resonance  and  timbre,  in  pitch  and  intervals. 
No  one  can  listen  to  an  eloquent  orator  or  preacher, 
or  to  a  man  calling  angrily  to  another,  or  to  one 
expressing  astonishment,  without  being  struck  with 
the  truth  of  Mr.  Spencer's  remarks.  It  is  curious  how 
early  in  life  the  modulation  of  the  voice  becomes  ex- 
pressive. With  one  of  my  children,  under  the  age  of 
two  years,  I  clearly  perceived  that  his  humph  of  assent 
was  rendered  by  a  slight  modulation  strongly  emphatic ; 
and  that  by  a  peculiar  whine  his  negative  expressed 
obstinate  determination.  Mr.  Spencer  further  shows 
that  emotional  speech,  in  all  the  above  respects  is 
intimately  related  to  vocal  music,  and  consequently 
to  instrumental  music  ;  and  he  attempts  to  explain  the 
characteristic  qualities  of  both  on  physiological  grounds, 
— namelv,  on  "  the  general  law  that  a  feeling  is  a  sti- 
"  mulus  to  muscular  action."  It  may  be  admitted  that 


1  See  the  evidence  on  this  head  in  my  '  Variation  of  Animals  and 
Plants  under  Domestication,'  vol.  i.  p.  27.     On  the  cooing  of  pigeons, 
\ol.  i.  pp.  154,  155. 

2  '  Essays,  Scientific,  Political,  and  Speculative,'  1858.    «  The  Origin 
and  Function  of  Music,'  p.  359. 


CHAP.  IV.  IN   ANIMALS.  87 

the  voice  is  affected  through  this  law ;  but  the  expla- 
nation appears  to  me  too  general  and  vague  to  throw 
much  light  on  the  various  differences,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  that  of  loudness,  between  ordinary  speech  and 
emotional  speech,  or  singing. 

This  remark  holds  good,  whether  we  believe  that  the 
various  qualities  of  the  voice  originated  in  speaking 
under  the  excitement  of  strong  feelings,  and  that  these 
qualities  have  subsequently  been  transferred  to  vocal 
music ;  or  whether  we  believe,  as  I  maintain,  that  the 
habit  of  uttering  musical  sounds  was  first  developed,  as 
a  means  of  courtship,  in  the  early  progenitors  of  man, 
and  thus  became  associated  with  the  strongest  emotions 
of  which  they  were  capable, — namely,  ardent  love, 
rivalry  and  triumph.  That  animals  utter  musical  notes 
is  familiar  to  every  one,  as  we  may  daily  hear  in  the 
singing  of  birds.  It  is  a  more  remarkable  fact  that  an 
ape,  one  of  the  Gibbons,  produces  an  exact  octave  of 
musical  sounds,  ascending  and  descending  the  scale  by 
half-tones ;  so  that  this  monkey  "  alone  of  brute  mam- 
"  mals  may  be  said  to  sing." 3  From  this  fact,  and 
from  the  analogy  of  other  animals,  I  have  been  led 
to  infer  that  the  progenitors  of  man  probably  uttered 
musical  tones,  before  they  had  acquired  the  power  of 
articulate  speech;  and  that  consequently,  when  the 
voice  is  used  under  any  strong  emotion,  it  tends  to 
assume,  through  the  principle  of  association,  a  musical 
character.  We  can  plainly  perceive,  with  some  of  the 
lower  animals,  that  the  males  employ  their  voices  to 


'  The  Descent  of  Man,'  1870,  vol.  ii.  p.  332.  The  words  quoted  are 
from  Professor  Owen.  It  has  lately  been  shown  that  some  quadrupeds 
much  lower  in  the  scale  than  monkeys,  namely  Rodents,  are  able  to  pro- 
duce correct  musical  tones  :  see  the  account  of  a  singing  Hesperomys, 
by  the  Eev.  S.  Lockwood,  in  the  '  American  Naturalist,'  vol.  v.  De- 
cember, 1871.  p.  761. 


88  MEANS   OF   EXPRESSION  CHAI   IV 

please  the  females,  and  that  they  themselves  take 
pleasure  in  their  own  vocal  utterances ;  but  why  par- 
ticular sounds  are  uttered,  and  why  these  give  pleasure 
cannot  at  present  be  explained. 

That  the  pitch  of  the  voice  bears  some  relation  to 
certain  states  of  feeling  is  tolerably  clear.  A  person 
gently  complaining  of  ill-treatment,  or  slightly  suffer- 
ing, almost  always  speaks  in  a  high-pitched  voice. 
Dogs,  when  a  little  impatient,  often  make  a  high  piping 
note  through  their  noses,  which  at  once  strikes  us 
as  plaintive;4  but  how  difficult  it  is  to  know  whether 
the  sound  is  essentially  plaintive,  or  only  appears  so 
in  this  particular  case,  from  our  having  learnt  by 
experience  what  it  means !  Eengger,  states 5  that  the 
monkeys  (Cebus  azarse),  which  he  kept  in  Paraguay, 
expressed  astonishment  by  a  half-piping,  half-snarling 
noise;  anger  or  impatience,  by  repeating  the  sound 
liu  hu  in  a  deeper,  grunting  voice ;  and  fright  or  pain, 
by  shrill  screams.  On  the  other  hand,  with  mankind, 
deep  groans  and  high  piercing  screams  equally  express 
an  agony  of  pain.  Laughter  may  be  either  high  or 
low;  so  that,  with  adult  men,  as  Haller  long  ago 
remarked,6  the  sound  partakes  of  the  character  of 
the  vowels  (as  pronounced  in  German)  0  and  A;  whilst 
with  children  and  women,  it  has  more  of  the  character 
of  E  and  I;  and  these  latter  vowel-sounds  naturally 
have,  as  Helmholtz  has  shown,  a  higher  pitch  than 
the  former ;  yet  both  tones  of  laughter  equally  express 
enjoyment  or  amusement. 

In  considering  the  mode  in  which  vocal  utterances 
express  emotion,  we  are  naturally  led  to  inquire  into 

4  Mr.  Tylor  ('  Primitive  Culture,'  1871,  vol.  i.  p.  166),  in  his  discus- 
sion on  this  subject,  alludes  to  the  whining  of  the  dog. 

4  '  Naturgeschichte  der  Saugethiere  von  Paraguay,'  1830,  8.  46. 
8  Quoted  by  Gratiolet, '  De  la  Physionomie,'  1865,  p.  115. 


CHAP.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  89 

the  cause  of  what  is  called  "  expression "  in  music. 
Upon  this  point  Mr.  Litchfield,  who  has  long  attended 
to  the  subject  of  music,  has  been  so  kind  as  to  give  me 
the  following  remarks : — '*  The  question,  what  is  the 
"essence  of  musical 'expression*  involves  a  number 
"  of  obscure  points,  which,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  are  as 
"  yet  unsolved  enigmas.  Up  to  a  certain  point,  how- 
"  ever,  any  law  which  is  found  to  hold  as  to  the  expres- 
"  sion  of  the  emotions  by  simple  sounds  must  apply  to 
"  the  more  developed  mode  of  expression  in  song,  which 
"  may  be  taken  as  the  primary  type  of  all  music.  A 
"  great  part  of  the  emotional  effect  of  a  song  depends 
"  on  the  character  of  the  action  by  which  the  sounds 
"  are  produced.  In  songs,  for  instance,  which  express 
"  great  vehemence  of  passion,  the  effect  often  chiefly 
"  depends  on  the  forcible  utterance  of  some  one  or  two 
"  characteristic  passages  which  demand  great  exertion 
"  of  vocal  force  ;  and  it  will  be  frequently  noticed  that 
"  a  song  of  this  character  fails  of  its  proper  effect  when 
"  sung  by  a  voice  of  sufficient  power  and  range  to  give 
"  the  characteristic  passages  without  much  exertion. 
"  This  is,  no  doubt,  the  secret  of  the  loss  of  effect  so 
"  often  produced  by  the  transposition  of  a  song  from 
"  one  key  to  another.  The  effect  is  thus  seen  to  depend 
"  not  merely  on  the  actual  sounds,  but  also  in  part  on 
"  the  nature  of  the  action  which  produces  the  sounds. 
"  Indeed  it  is  obvious  that  whenever  we  feel  the  '  ex- 
"  c  pression '  of  a  song  to  be  due  to  its  quickness  or  slow- 
"  ness  of  movement — to  smoothness  of  flow,  loudness  of 
"  utterance,  and  so  on — we  are,  in  fact,  interpreting  the 
"  muscular  actions  which  produce  sound,  in  the  same 
"  way  in  which  we  interpret  muscular  action  generally. 
"  But  this  leaves  unexplained  the  more  subtle  and  more 
"  specific  effect  which  we  call  the  musical  expression  of 
"  the  song — the  delight  given  by  its  melody,  or  even 

5 


90  MEANS   OF   EXPRESSION  CHAP.  IV. 

"  by  the  separate  sounds  which  make  up  the  melody. 
"  This  is  an  effect  indefinable  in  language — one  which, 
"  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  no  one  has  been  able  to  analyse, 
"  and  which  the  ingenious  speculation  of  Mr.  Herbert 
"  Spencer  as  to  the  origin  of  music  leaves  quite  unex- 
"  plained.  For  it  is  certain  that  the  melodic  effect  of  a 
"  series  of  sounds  does  not  depend  in  the  least  on  their 
"  loudness  or  softness,  or  on  their  absolute  pitch.  A 
"  tune  is  always  the  same  tune,  whether  it  is  sung  loudly 
"  or  softly,  by  a  child  or  a  man ;  whether  it  is  played 
"  on  a  flute  or  on  a  trombone.  The  purely  musical 
"  effect  of  any  sound  depends  on  its  place  in  what  is 
"  technically  called  a  '  scale ; '  the  same  sound  producing 
"  absolutely  different  effects  on  the  ear,  according  as  it 
"  is  heard  in  connection  with  one  or  another  series  of 
"  sounds. 

*'  It  is  on  this  relative  association  of  the  sounds  that 
"  all  the  essentially  characteristic  effects  which  are 
"  summed  up  in  the  phrase  *  musical  expression,'  depend. 
"  But  why  certain  associations  of  sounds  have  such-and- 
"  such  effects,  is  a  problem  which  yet  remains  to  be 
"  solved.  These  effects  must  indeed,  in  some  way  or 
"  other,  be  connected  with  the  well-known  arithmetical 
"  relations  between  the  rates  of  vibration  of  the  sounds 
"which  form  a  musical  scale.  And  it  is  possible — 
"  but  this  is  merely  a  suggestion — that  the  greater  or 
"  less  mechanical  facility  with  which  the  vibrating 
"  apparatus  of  the  human  larynx  passes  from  one  state 
"  of  vibration  to  another,  may  have  been  a  primary 
"  cause  of  the  greater  or  less  pleasure  produced  by 
"  various  sequences  of  sounds." 

But  leaving  aside  these  complex  questions  and  con- 
fining ourselves  to  the  simpler  sounds,  we  can,  at  least, 
see  some  reasons  for  the  association  of  certain  kinds  of 
sounds  with  certain  states  of  mind.  A  scream,  for 


CHAP.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  91 

instance,  uttered  by  a  young  animal,  or  by  one  of  the 
members  of  a  community,  as  a  call  for  assistance,  will 
naturally  be  loud,  prolonged,  and  high,  so  as  to  pene- 
trate to  a  distance.  For  Helmholtz  has  shown  7  that, 
owing  to  the  shape  of  the  internal  cavity  of  the  human 
ear  and  its  consequent  power  of  resonance,  high  notes 
produce  a  particularly  strong  impression.  When  male 
animals  utter  sounds  in  order  to  please  the  females,  they 
would  naturally  employ  those  which  are  sweet  to  the 
ears  of  the  species;  and  it  appears  that  the  same 
sounds  are  often  pleasing  to  widely  different  animals, 
owing  to  the  similarity  of  their  nervous  systems,  as  we 
ourselves  perceive  in  the  singing  of  birds  and  even  in 
the  chirping  of  certain  tree-frogs  giving  us  pleasure. 
On  the  other  hand,  sounds  produced  in  order  to  strike 
terror  into  an  enemy,  would  naturally  be  harsh  or 
displeasing. 

Whether  the  principle  of  antithesis  has  come  into 
play  with  sounds,  as  might  perhaps  have  been  expected, 
is  doubtful.  The  interrupted,  laughing  or  tittering 
sounds  made  by  man  and  by  various  kinds  of  monkeys 
when  pleased,  are  as  different  as  possible  from  the  pro- 
longed screams  of  these  animals  when  distressed.  The 
deep  grunt  of  satisfaction  uttered  by  a  pig,  when  pleased 
with  its  food,  is  widely  different  from  its  harsh  scream 
of  pain  or  terror.  But  with  the  dog,  as  lately  remarked, 
the  bark  of  anger  and  that  of  joy  are  sounds  which  by 
no  means  stand  in  opposition  to  each  other ;  and  so  it  is 
in  some  other  cases. 

There  is  another  obscure  point,  namely,  whether  the 
sounds  which  are  produced  under  various  states  of  the 

7  *  The'orie  Physiologique  de  la  Musique,'  Paris,  1868,  p.  146. 
Helmholtz  has  also  fully  discussed  in  this  profound  work  the  relation 
of  the  form  of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  to  the  production  of  vowel- 
Bounds. 


92  MEANS  OF   EXPRESSION  CHAP.  IV. 

mind  determine  the  shape  of  the  mouth,  or  whether 
its  shape  is  not  determined  by  independent  causes,  and 
the  sound  thus  modified.  When  young  infants  cry  they 
open  their  mouths  widely,  and  this,  no  doubt,  is  neces- 
sary for  pouring  forth  a  full  volume  of  sound ;  but  the 
mouth  then  assumes,  from  a  quite  distinct  cause,  an 
almost  quadrangular  shape,  depending,  as  will  hereafter 
be  explained,  on  the  firm  closing  of  the  eyelids,  and  con- 
sequent drawing  up  of  the  upper  lip.  How  far  this 
square  shape  of  the  mouth  modifies  the  wailing  or 
crying  sound,  I  am  not  prepared  to  say ;  but  we  know 
from  the  researches  of  Helmholtz  and  others  that  the 
form  of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  and  lips  determines  the 
nature  and  pitch  of  the  vowel  sounds  which  are  pro- 
duced. 

It  will  also  be  shown  in  a  future  chapter  that,  under 
the  feeling  of  contempt  or  disgust,  there  is  a  tendency, 
from  intelligible  causes,  to  blow  out  of  the  mouth  or 
nostrils,  and  this  produces  sounds  like  pooh  or  pish. 
When  any  one  is  startled  or  suddenly  astonished,  there 
is  an  instantaneous  tendency,  likewise  from  an  intel- 
ligible cause,  namely,  to  be  ready  for  prolonged  exer- 
tion, to  open  the  mouth  widely,  so  as  to  draw  a  deep  and 
rapid  inspiration.  When  the  next  full  expiration  follows, 
the  mouth  is  slightly  closed,  and  the  lips,  from  causes 
hereafter  to  be  discussed,  are  somewhat  protruded ;  and 
this  form  of  the  mouth,  if  the  voice  be  at  all  exerted, 
produces,  according  to  Helmholtz,  the  sound  of  the 
vowel  0.  Certainly  a  deep  sound  of  a  prolonged  Oh ! 
may  be  heard  from  a  whole  crowd  of  people  immediately 
after  witnessing  any  astonishing  spectacle.  If,  together 
with  surprise,  pain  be  felt,  there  is  a  tendency  to  con- 
tract all  the  muscles  of  the  body,  including  those  of  the 
face,  and  the  lips  will  then  be  drawn  back ;  and  this 
will  perhaps  account  for  the  sound  becoming  higher  and 


CHAP.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  93 

assuming  the  character  of  All !  or  Ach  I  As  fear  causes 
all  the  muscles  of  the  body  to  tremble,  the  voice  naturally 
becomes  tremulous,  and  at  the  same  time  husky  from 
the  dry  ness  of  the  mouth,  owing  to  the  salivary  glands 
failing  to  act.  Why  the  laughter  of  man  and  the 
tittering  of  monkeys  should  be  a  rapidly  reiterated 
sound,  cannot  be  explained.  During  the  utterance  of 
these  sounds,  the  mouth  is  transversely  elongated  by 
the  corners  being  drawn  backwards  and  upwards; 
and  of  this  fact  an  explanation  will  be  attempted 
in  a  future  chapter.  But  the  whole  subject  of  the 
differences  of  the  sounds  produced 
under  different  states  of  the  mind  is 
so  obscure,  that  I  have  succeeded  in 
throwing  hardly  any  light  on  it ;  and 
the  remarks  which  I  have  made,  have 
but  little  significance. 

All  the  sounds  hitherto  noticed  de- 
pend on  the  respiratory  organs;  but 
sounds  produce!  by  wholly  different 
means  are  likewise  expressive.  Eab- 
bits  stamp  loudly  on  the  ground  as  a 
signal  to  their  comrades;  and  if  a  man 
knows  how  to  do  so  properly,  he  may 
on  a  quiet  evening  hear  the  rabbits 
answering  him  all  around.  These  ani- 
mals, as  well  as  some  others,  also  stamp 
on  the  ground  when  made  angry.  Por- 
cupines rattle  their  quills  and  vibrate 
their  tails  when  angered ;  and  one  be- 
haved  in  this  manner  when  a  live  snake  **£ 
was  placed  in  its  compartment.  The  the  Porcupine. 
quills  on  the  tail  are  very  different  from  those  on  the 
body :  they  are  short,  hollow,  thin  like  a  goose-quill, 


94  MEANS  OF   EXPKESSION  CHAP.  IV. 

with  their  ends  transversely  truncated,  so  that  they  are 
open;  they  are  supported  on  long,  thin,  elastic  foot- 
stalks. Now,  when  the  tail  is  rapidly  shaken,  these 
hollow  quills  strike  against  each  other  and  produce, 
as  I  heard  in  the  presence  of  Mr.  Bartlett,  a  peculiar 
continuous  sound.  We  can,  I  think,  understand  why 
porcupines  have  been  provided,  through  the  modifica- 
tion of  their  protective  spines,  with  this  special  sound- 
producing  instrument.  They  are  nocturnal  animals, 
and  if  they  scented  or  heard  a  prowling  beast  of  prey, 
it  would  be  a  great  advantage  to  them  in  the  dark  to 
give  warning  to  their  enemy  what  they  were,  and  that 
they  were  furnished  with  dangerous  spines.  They  would 
thus  escape  being  attacked.  They  are,  as  I  may  add, 
so  fully  conscious  of  the  power  of  their  weapons,  that 
when  enraged  they  will  charge  backwards  with  their 
spines  erected,  yet  still  inclined  backwards. 

Many  birds  during  their  courtship  produce  diversified 
sounds  by  means  of  specially  adapted  feathers.  Storks, 
when  excited,  make  a  loud  clattering  noise  with  their 
beaks.  Some  snakes  produce  a  grating  or  rattling  noise. 
Many  insects  stridulate  by  rubbing  together  specially 
modified  parts  of  their  hard  integuments.  This  stridula- 
tion  generally  serves  as  a  sexual  charm  or  call ;  but  it 
is  likewise  used  to  express  different  emotions.  8  Every 
one  who  has  attended  to  bees  knows  that  their  humming 
changes  when  they  are  angry ;  and  this  serves  as  a 
warning  that  there  is  danger  of  being  stung.  I  have 
made  these  few  remarks  because  some  writers  have 
laid  so  much  stress  on  the  vocal  and  respiratory  organs 
as  having  been  specially  adapted  for  expression,  that  it 
was  advisable  to  show  that  sounds  otherwise  produce! 
serve  equally  well  for  the  same  purpose. 

8  I  have  given  some  details  on  this  subject  in  my  «  Descent  of  Man, 
vol.  i  pp.  352,  384. 


OiAP.1V.  IN   ANIMALS.  95 

Erection  of  tlie  dermal  appendages. — Hardly  any  ex- 
pressive  movement  is  so  general  as  the  involuntary 
erection  of  the  hairs,  feathers  and  other  dermal  appen- 
dages ;  for  it  is  common  throughout  three  of  the  great 
vertebrate  classes.  These  appendages  are  erected  under 
the  excitement  of  anger  or  terror ;  more  especially 
when  these  emotions  are  combined,  or  quickly  succeed 
each  other.  The  action  serves  to  make  the  animal 
appear  larger  and  more  frightful  to  its  enemies  or 
rivals,  and  is  generally  accompanied  by  various  volun- 
tary movements  adapted  for  the  same  purpose,  and  by 
the  utterance  of  savage  sounds.  Mr.  Bartlett,  who  has 
had  such  wide  experience  with  animals  of  all  kinds,  does 
not  doubt  that  this  is  the  case ;  but  it  is  a  different 
question  whether  the  power  of  erection  was  primarily 
acquired  for  this  special  purpose. 

I  will  first  give  a  considerable  body  of  facts  showing 
how  general  this  action  is  with  mammals,  birds  and 
reptiles ;  retaining  what  I  have  to  say  in  regard  to  man 
for  a  future  chapter.  Mr.  Sutton,  the  intelligent  keeper 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  carefully  observed  for  me 
the  Chimpanzee  and  Orang ;  and  he  states  that  when 
they  are  suddenly  frightened,  as  by  a  thunderstorm,  or 
when  they  are  made  angry,  as  by  being  teased,  their 
hair  becomes  erect.  I  saw  a  chimpanzee  who  was 
alarmed  at  the  sight  of  a  black  coalheaver,  and  the 
hair  rose  all  over  his  body ;  he  made  little  starts 
forward  as  if  to  attack  the  man,  without  any  real 
intention  of  doing  so,  but  with  the  hope,  as  the  keeper 
remarked,  of  frightening  him.  The  Gorilla,  when 
enraged,  is  described  by  Mr.  Ford 9  as  having  his 
crest  of  hair  "  erect  and  projecting  forward,  his  nostrils 
"  dilated,  and  his  under  lip  thrown  down ;  at  the  same 

'  As  quoted  in  Huxley's  '  Evidence  as  to  Man's  Place  in  Nature,' 
18G3,  p.  52. 


96  MEANS  OF   EXPRESSION  CHAP.  IV. 

"  time  uttering  his  characteristic  yell,  designed,  it  would 
"  seem,  to  terrify  his  antagonists."  I  saw  the  hair  on  the 
Anubis  baboon,  when  angered  bristling  along  the  back, 
from  the  neck  to  the  loins,  but  not  on  the  rump  or 
other  parts  of  the  body.  I  took  a  stuffed  snake  into 
the  monkey-house,  and  the  hair  on  several  of  the  species 
instantly  became  erect;  especially  on  their  tails,  as  I 
particularly  noticed  with  the  Cercopitliecus  nictitans. 
Brehm  states 10  that  the  Midas  oedipus  (belonging  to  the 
American  division)  when  excited  erects  its  mane,  in 
order,  as  he  adds,  to  make  itself  as  frightful  as  possible. 

With  the  Carnivora  the  erection  of  the  hair  seems  to 
be  almost  universal,  often  accompanied  by  threatening 
movements,  the  uncovering  of  the  teeth  and  the  utter- 
ance of  savage  growls.  In  the  Herpestes,  I  have  seen 
the  hair  on  end  over  nearly  the  whole  body,  including  the 
tail ;  and  the  dorsal  crest  is  erected  in  a  conspicuous 
manner  by  the  Hyaena  and  Proteles.  The  enraged  lion 
erects  his  mane.  The  bristling  of  the  hair  along  the 
neck  and  back  of  the  dog,  and  over  the  whole  body  of 
the  cat,  especially  on  the  tail,  is  familiar  to  every  one. 
With  the  cat  it  apparently  occurs  only  under  fear ;  with 
the  dog,  under  anger  and  fear ;  but  not,  as  far  as  I  have 
observed,  under  abject  fear,  as  when  a  dog  is  going  to  be 
flogged  by  a  severe  gamekeeper.  If,  however,  the  dog 
shows  fight,  as  sometimes  happens,  up  goes  his  hair. 
I  have  often  noticed  that  the  hair  of  a  dog  is  particu- 
larly liable  to  rise,  if  he  is  half  angry  and  half  afraid, 
as  on  beholding  some  object  only  indistinctly  seen  in 
the  dusk. 

I  have  been  assured  by  a  veterinary  surgeon  that  he 
has  often  seen  the  hair  erected  on  horses  and  cattle,  on 
which  he  had  operated  and  was  again  going  to  operate. 


Illust.  Thierteben,  1864,  B.  i.  s.  130. 


CHAP.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  97 

When  I  showed  a  stuffed  snake  to  a  Peccary,  the  hair 
rose  in  a  wonderful  manner  along  its  back ;  and  so  it 
does  with  the  boar  when  enraged.  An  Elk  which  gored 
a  man  to  death  in  the  United  States,  is  described  as 
first  brandishing  his  antlers,  squealing  with  rage  and 
stamping  on  the  ground ;  "  at  length  his  hair  was  seen 
"  to  rise  and  stand  on  end,"  and  then  he  plunged  forward 
to  the  attack.11  The  hair  likewise  becomes  erect 
on  goats,  and,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  Blyth,  on  some  Indian 
antelopes.  I  have  seen  it  erected  on  the  hairy  Ant- 
eater;  and  on  the  Agouti,  one  of  the  Kodents.  A 
female  Bat,12  which  reared  her  young  under  con- 
finement, when  any  one  looked  into  the  cage  *'  erected 
"  the  fur  on  her  back,  and  bit  viciously  at  intruding 
"  fingers." 

Birds  belonging  to  all  the  chief  Orders  ruffle  their 
feathers  when  angry  or  frightened.  Every  one  must 
have  seen  two  cocks,  even  quite  young  birds,  preparing 
to  fight  with  erected  neck-hackles;  nor  can  these 
feathers  when  erected  serve  as  a  means  of  defence, 
for  cock-fighters  have  found  by  experience  that  it  is 
advantageous  to  trim  them.  The  male  Euff  (Ma- 
chetes pugnax)  likewise  erects  its  collar  of  feathers 
when  fighting.  When  a  dog  approaches  a  common  hen 
with  her  chickens,  she  spreads  out  her  wings,  raises  her 
tail,  ruffles  all  her  feathers,  and  looking  as  ferocious  as 
possible,  dashes  at  the  intruder.  The  tail  is  not  always 
held  in  exactly  the  same  position;  it  is  sometimes 
so  much  erected,  that  the  central  feathers,  as  in  the 
accompanying  drawing,  almost  touch  the  back.  Swans, 
when  angered,  likewise  raise  their  wings  and  tail,  and 


11  The  Hon.  J.  Caton,  Ottawa  Acad.  of  Nat.  Sciences,  May,  1868, 
pp.  36,  40.    For  the  Capra  jfigagrus,  «  Land  and  Water,'  1867,  p.  37. 

12  «  Land  and  Water,'  July  20,  1867,  p.  659. 


98 


MEANS  OF   EXPRESSION 


CHAP.  IV. 


erect  their  feathers.  They  open  their  beaks,  and  make 
by  paddling  little  rapid  starts  forwards,  against  any 
one  who  approaches  the  water's  edge  too  closely. 
Tropic  birds13  when  disturbed  on  their  nests  are 
said  not  to  fly  away,  but  "merely  to  stick  out 
"  their  feathers  and  scream."  The  Barn-owl,  when  ap- 


F\g.  12.     Hen  driving  away  a  dog  from  her  chickens.    Drawn  from  lii'e  by  Mr.  Wood. 

proached  "  instantly  swells  out  its  plumage,  extends  its 
"wings  and  tail,  hisses  and  clacks  its  mandibles  with 
"  force  and  rapidity." u  So  do  other  kinds  of  owls. 
Hawks,  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Jenner  Weir,  likewise 
ruffle  their  feathers,  and  spread  out  their  wings  and  tail 


18  Phaeton  rubricauda  :  <  Ibis,'  vol.  iii.  1861,  p.  180. 

14  On  the  Strix  flammea,  Audubon,  *  Ornithological  Biography,' 
18f4,  vol.  ii.  p.  407.  I  have  observed  other  cases  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens. 


CHAP.  IV. 


IN    ANIMALS. 


99 


under  similar  circumstances.  Some  kinds  of  parrots 
erect  their  feathers ;  and  I  have  seen  this  action  in  the 
Cassowary,  when  angered  at  the  sight  of  an  Anteater. 
Young  cuckoos  in  the  nest,  raise  their  feathers,  open 
their  mouths  widely,  and  make  themselves  as  frightful 
as  possible. 


Fig.  13.    Swan  driving  away  an  intruder.    Drawn  from  life  by  Mr.  Wood. 

Small  birds,  also,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  Weir,  such 
as  various  finches,  buntings  and  warblers,  when  angry, 
ruffle  all  their  feathers,  or  only  those  round  the 
neck ;  or  they  spread  out  their  wings  and  tail-feathers. 
With  their  plumage  in  this  state,  they  rush  at  each 
other  with  open  beaks  and  threatening  gestures.  Mr. 
Weir  concludes  from  his  large  experience  that  the 
erection  of  the  feathers  is  caused  much  more  by  anger 
than  by  fear.  He  gives  as  an  instance  a  hybrid  gold 


100  MEANS   OF   EXPRESSION  CHAP.  IV. 

finch  of  a  most  irascible  disposition,  which  when  ap- 
proached too  closely  by  a  servant,  instantly  assumes 
the  appearance  of  a  ball  of  ruffled  feathers.  He  be- 
lieves that  birds  when  frightened,  as  a  general  rule, 
closely  adpress  all  their  feathers,  and  their  consequently 
diminished  size  is  often  astonishing.  As  soon  as  they 
recover  from  their  fear  or  surprise,  the  first  thing 
which  they  do  is  to  shake  out  their  feathers.  The 
best  instances  of  this  adpression  of  the  feathers  and 
apparent  shrinking  of  the  body  from  fear,  which  Mr. 
Weir  has  noticed,  has  been  in  the  quail  and  grass- 
parrakeet. 15  The  habit  is  intelligible  in  these  birds 
from  their  being  accustomed,  when  in  danger,  either 
to  squat  on  the  ground  or  to  sit  motionless  on  a  branch, 
so  as  to  escape  detection.  Though,  with  birds,  anger 
may  be  the  chief  and  commonest  cause  of  the  erection 
of  the  feathers,  it  is  probable  that  young  cuckoos  when 
looked  at  in  the  nest,  and  a  hen  with  her  chickens  when 
approached  by  a  dog,  feel  at  least  some  terror.  Mr. 
Tegetmeier  informs  me  that  with  game-cocks,  the 
erection  of  the  feathers  on  the  head  has  long  been 
recognized  in  the  cock-pit  as  a  sign  of  cowardice. 

The  males  of  some  lizards,  when  fighting  together 
during  their  courtship,  expand  their  throat  pouches  or 
frills,  and  erect  their  dorsal  crests. 16  But  Dr.  Gunther 
does  not  believe  that  they  can  erect  their  separate 
spines  or  scales. 

We  thus  see  how  generally  throughout  the  two 
higher  vertebrate  classes,  and  with  some  reptiles,  the 
dermal  appendages  are  erected  under  the  influence 
of  anger  and  fear.  The  movement  is  effected,  as  we 


15  Melopsittacus  undulatus.     See  an  account  of  its  habits  by  Gould, 
4  Handbook  of  Birds  of  Australia,'  1865,  vol.  ii.  p.  82. 

16  See,  for  instance,  the  account  which  I  have  given  ('  Descent  of 
Man/  vol.  ii.  p.  32)  of  an  Anolis  arid  Draco. 


.  IV.  IN   ANIMALS.  101 

know  from  Kolliker's  interesting  discovery,  by  the  con- 
traction of  minute,  unstriped,  involuntary  muscles,17 
often  called  arrectores  pili,  which  are  attached  to  the 
capsules  of  the  separate  hairs,  feathers,  &c.  By  the  con- 
traction of  these  muscles  the  hairs  can  be  instantly 
erected,  as  we  see  in  a  dog,  being  at  the  same  time  drawn 
a  little  out  of  their  sockets ;  they  are  afterwards  quickly 
depressed.  The  vast  number  of  these  minute  muscles 
over  the  whole  body  of  a  hairy  quadruped  is  astonishing. 
The  erection  of  the  hair  is,  however,  aided  in  some  cases, 
as  with  that  on  the  head  of  a  man,  by  the  striped  and 
voluntary  muscles  of  the  underlying  panniculus  car- 
nosus.  It  is  by  the  action  of  these  latter  muscles,  that 
the  hedgehog  erects  its  spines.  It  appears,  also,  from 
the  researches  of  Leydig18  and  others,  that  striped 
fibres  extend  from  the  panniculus  to  some  of  the  larger 
hairs,  such  as  the  vibrissse  of  certain  quadrupeds.  The 
arrectores  pili  contract  not  only  under  the  above  emo- 
tions, but  from  the  application  of  cold  to  the  surface. 
I  remember  that  my  mules  and  dogs,  brought  from  a 
lower  and  warmer  country,  after  spending  a  night  on  the 
bleak  Cordillera,  had  the  hair  all  over  their  bodies  as 
erect  as  under  the  greatest  terror.  We  see  the  same 
action  in  our  own  goose-skin  during  the  chill  before  a 
fever-fit.  Mr.  Lister  has  also  found, 19  that  tickling 
a  neighbouring  part  of  the  skin  causes  the  erection 
and  protrusion  of  the  hairs. 

From  these  facts  it  is  manifest  that  the  erection  of 
the  dermal  appendages  is  a  reflex  action,  independent 


17  These  muscles  are  described  in   his  well-known  works.    I  am 
greatly  indebted  to  this  distinguished  observer  for  having  given  me 
in  a  letter  information  on  this  same  subject. 

18  '  Lehrbuch  der  Histologie  des  Menschen,'  1857,  s.  82.     I  owe  to 
Prof.  W.  Turner's  kindness  an  extract  from  this  work. 

19  '  Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Science,'  1853,  vol.  i.  p.  2C2. 


102  MEANS   OF   EXPRESSION  CHAP.  IV. 

of  the  will ;  and  this  action  must  be  looked  at,  when 
occurring  under  the  influence  of  anger  or  fear,  not  as  a 
power  acquired  for  the  sake  of  some  advantage,  but 
as  an  incidental  result,  at  least  to  a  large  extent,  of  the 
sensorium  being  affected.  The  result,  in  as  far  as  it  is 
incidental,  may  be  compared  with  the  profuse  sweating 
from  an  agony  of  pain  or  terror.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
remarkable  how  slight  an  excitement  often  suffices  to 
cause  the  hair  to  become  erect ;  as  when  two  dogs 
pretend  to  fight  together  in  play.  We  have,  also,  seen 
in  a  large  number  of  animals,  belonging  to  widely  dis- 
tinct classes,  that  the  erection  of  the  hair  or  feathers  is 
almost  always  accompanied  by  various  voluntary  move- 
ments— by  threatening  gestures,  opening  the  mouth, 
uncovering  the  teeth,  spreading  out  of  the  wings  and 
tail  by  birds,  and  by  the  utterance  of  harsh  sounds; 
and  the  purpose  of  these  voluntary  movements  is  un- 
mistakable. Therefore  it  seems  hardly  credible  that 
the  co-ordinated  erection  of  the  dermal  appendages,  by 
which  the  animal  is  made  to  appear  larger  and  more 
terrible  to  its  enemies  or  rivals,  should  be  altogether  an 
incidental  and  purposeless  result  of  the  disturbance  of 
the  sensorium.  This  seems  almost  as  incredible  as  that 
the  erection  by  the  hedgehog  of  its  spines,  or  of  the 
quills  by  the  porcupine,  or  of  the  ornamental  plumes 
by  many  birds  during  their  courtship,  should  all  be 
purposeless  actions. 

We  here  encounter  a  great  difficulty.  How  can  the 
contraction  of  the  unstriped  and  involuntary  arrectores 
pili  have  been  co-ordinated  with  that  of  various  volun- 
tary muscles  for  the  same  special  purpose?  If  we 
could  believe  that  the  arrectores  primordially  had  been 
voluntary  muscles,  and  had  since  lost  their  stripes  and 
become  involuntary,  the  case  would  be  comparatively 
simple.  I  am  not,  however,  aware  that  there  is  any 


CHAP.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  103 

evidence  in  favour  of  this  view ;  although  the  reversed 
transition  would  not  have  presented  any  great  diffi- 
culty, as  the  voluntary  muscles  are  in  an  unstriped  con- 
dition in  the  embryos  of  the  higher  animals,  and  in  the 
larvae  of  some  crustaceans.  Moreover  in  the  deeper 
layers  of  the  skin  of  adult  birds,  the  muscular  network 
is,  according  to  Leydig, 20  in  a  transitional  condition  ; 
the  fibres  exhibiting  only  indications  of  transverse 
striation. 

Another  explanation  seems  possible.  We  may  admit 
that  originally  the  arrectores  pili  were  slightly  acted  on 
in  a  direct  manner,  under  the  influence  of  rage  and 
terror,  by  the  disturbance  of  the  nervous  system  ;  as  is 
undoubtedly  the  case  with  our  so-called  goose  skin 
before  a  fever-fit.  Animals  have  been  repeatedly 
excited  by  rage  and  terror  during  many  generations ; 
and  consequently  the  direct  effects  of  the  disturbed 
nervous  system  on  the  dermal  appendages  will  almost 
certainly  have  been  increased  through  habit  and  through 
the  tendency  of  nerve-force  to  pass  readily  along  accus- 
tomed channels.  We  shall  find  this  view  of  the  force 
of  habit  strikingly  confirmed  in  a  future  chapter,  where 
it  will  be  shown  that  the  hair  of  the  insane  is  affected 
in  an  extraordinary  manner,  owing  to  their  repeated 
accesses  of  fury  and  terror.  As  soon  as  with  animals 
the  power  of  erection  had  thus  been  strengthened  or 
increased,  they  must  often  have  seen  the  hairs  or 
feathers  erected  in  rival  and  enraged  males,  and  the 
bulk  of  their  bodies  thus  increased.  In  this  case  it 
appears  possible  that  they  might  have  wished  to  make 
themselves  appear  larger  and  more  terrible  to  their 
enemies,  by  voluntarily  assuming  a  threatening  atti- 
tude and  uttering  harsh  cries ;  such  attitudes  and 


20  '  Lehrbueh  tier  Histologie.'  1857,  s.  82. 


104  MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  CHAP.  IV. 

utterances  after  a  time  becoming  through  habit  in- 
stinctive. In  this  manner  actions  performed  by  the 
contraction  of  voluntary  muscles  might  have  been 
combined  for  the  same  special  purpose  with  those 
effected  by  involuntary  muscles.  It  is  even  possible 
that  animals,  when  excited  and  dimly  conscious  of 
some  change  in  the  state  of  their  hair,  might  act  on 
it  by  repeated  exertions  of  their  attention  and  will ; 
for  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  will  is  able  to 
influence  in  an  obscure  manner  the  action  of  some 
unstriped  or  involuntary  muscles,  as  in  the  period 
of  the  peristaltic  movements  of  the  intestines,  and  in 
the  contraction  of  the  bladder.  Nor  must  we  over- 
look the  part  which  variation  and  natural  selection 
may  have  played ;  for  the  males  which  succeeded  in 
making  themselves  appear  the  most  terrible  to  their 
rivals,  or  to  their  other  enemies,  if  not  of  overwhelming 
power,  will  on  an  average  have  left  more  offspring  to 
inherit  their  characteristic  qualities,  whatever  these 
may  be  and  however  first  acquired,  than  have  other 
males. 

The  inflation  of  the  body,  and  other  means  of  exciting 
fear  in  an  enemy. — Certain  Amphibians  and  Reptiles, 
which  either  have  no  spines  to  erect,  or  no  muscles  by 
which  they  can  be  erected,  enlarge  themselves  when 
alarmed  or  angry  by  inhaling  air.  This  is  well  known 
to  be  the  case  with  toads  and  frogs.  The  latter  animal 
is  made,  in  u3£sop's  fable  of  the  *  Ox  and  the  Frog,'  to 
blow  itself  up  from  vanity  and  envy  until  it  burst. 
This  action  must  have  been  observed  during  the  most 
ancient  times,  as,  according  to  Mr.  Hensleigh  Wedg- 
wood, 21  the  word  toad  expresses  in  all  the  languages 
of  Europe  the  habit  of  swelling.  It  has  been  observed 


21  '  Dictionary  of  English  Etymology,'  p.  403. 


CHAP.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  105 

with  some  of  the  exotic  species  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens ;  and  Dr.  Giinther  believes  that  it  is  general 
throughout  the  group.  Judging  from  analogy,  the 
primary  purpose  probably  was  to  make  the  body  appear 
as  large  and  frightful  as  possible  to  an  enemy ;  but 
another,  and  perhaps  more  important  secondary  advan- 
tage is  thus  gained.  When  frogs  are  seized  by  snakes, 
which  are  their  chief  enemies,  they  enlarge  themselves 
wonderfully;  so  that  if  the  snake  be  of  small  size,  as 
Dr.  Giinther  informs  me,  it  cannot  swallow  the  frog, 
which  thus  escapes  being  devoured. 

Chameleons  and  some  other  lizards  inflate  themselves 
when  angry.  Thus  a  species  inhabiting  Oregon,  the 
Tapaya  Douglasii,  is  slow  in  its  movements  and  does 
not  bite,  but  has  a  ferocious  aspect ;  "  when  irritated 
"  it  springs  in  a  most  threatening  manner  at  anything 
"  pointed  at  it,  at  the  same  time  opening  its  mouth 
"  wide  and  hissing  audibly,  after  which  it  inflates  its 
"  body,  and  shows  other  marks  of  anger." 22 

Several  kinds  of  snakes  likewise  inflate  themselves 
when  irritated.  The  puff-adder  (Clotho  arietans)  is 
remarkable  in  this  respect ;  but  I  believe,  after  carefully 
watching  these  animals,  that  they  do  not  act  thus  for 
the  sake  of  increasing  their  apparent  bulk,  but  simply 
for  inhaling  a  large  supply  of  air,  so  as  to  produce  their 
surprisingly  loud,  harsh,  and  prolonged  hissing  sound. 
The  Cobras-de-capello,  when  irritated,  enlarge  them- 
selves a  little,  and  hiss  moderately ;  but,  at  the  same 
time  they  lift  their  heads  aloft,  and  dilate  by  means  of 
their  elongated  anterior  ribs,  the  skin  on  each  side 
of  the  neck  into  a  large  flat  disk, — the  so-called  hood. 
With  their  widely  opened  mouths,  they  then  assume  a 


22  See  the  account  of  the  habits  of  this  animal  by  Dr.  Cooper,  as 
quoted  in  '  Nature/  April  27,  1871,  p.  512. 


106  MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  CHAP.  IV 

terrific  aspect.  The  benefit  thus  derived  ought  to 
be  considerable,  in  order  to  compensate  for  the  some- 
what lessened  rapidity  (though  this  is  still  great)  with 
which,  when  dilated,  they  can  strike  at  their  enemies 
or  prey  ;  on  the  same  principle  that  a  broarl,  thin 
piece  of  wood  cannot  be  moved  through  the  air  so 
quickly  as  a  small  round  stick.  An  innocuous  snake, 
the  Tropidonotus  macrophthalmus,  an  inhabitant  of  India, 
likewise  dilates  its  neck  when  irritated ;  and  conse- 
quently is  often  mistaken  for  its  compatriot,  the  deadly 
Cobra. 23  This  resemblance  perhaps  serves  as  some 
protection  to  the  Tropidonotus.  Another  innocuous 
species,  the  Dasypeltis  of  South  Africa,  blows  itself 
out,  distends  its  neck,  hisses  and  darts  at  an  intruder.24 
Many  other  snakes  hiss  under  similar  circumstances. 
They  also  rapidly  vibrate  their  protruded  tongues ;  and 
this  may  aid  in  increasing  their  terrific  appearance. 

Snakes  possess  other  means  of  producing  sounds 
besides  hissing.  Many  years  ago  I  observed  in  South 
America  that  a  venomous  Trigonocephalus,  when  dis- 
turbed, rapidly  vibrated  the  end  of  its  tail,  which  striking 
against  the  dry  grass  and  twigs  produced  a  rattling 
noise  that  could  be  distinctly  heard  at  the  distance  of 
six  feet.25  The  deadly  and  fierce  Eclris  carinata 
of  India  produces  "  a  curious  prolonged,  almost  hissing 
"  sound  "  in  a  very  different  manner,  namely  by  rub- 
bing "  the  sides  of  the  folds  of  its  body  against  each 
"  other,"  whilst  the  head  remains  in  almost  the  same 
position.  The  scales  on  the  sides,  and  not  on  other 
parts  of  the  body,  are  strongly  keeled,  with  the  keels 


23  Dr.  Gunthcr,  '  Eeptiles  of  British  India,'  p.  262. 

24  Mr.  J.  Hansel  Weale,  '  Nature,'  April  27,  1871,  p.  508. 

25  *  Journal  of  Researches  during  the  Voyage  of  the  "  Beagle," '  1845, 
p.  96.    I  here  compared  the  rattling  thus  produced  with  that  of  the 
Rattle-snake. 


CHAP.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  107 

toothed  like  a  saw ;  and  as  the  coiled-up  animal  rubs 
its  sides  together,  these  grate  against  each  other. 26 
Lastly,  we  have  the  well-known  case  of  the  Rattle-snake. 
He  who  has  merely  shaken  the  rattle  of  a  dead  snake, 
can  form  no  just  idea  of  the  sound  produced  by  the 
living  animal.  Professor  Shaler  states  that  it  is  indis- 
guishable  from  that  made  by  the  male  of  a  large  Cicada 
(an  Homopterous  insect),  which  inhabits  the  same 
district.27  In  the  Zoological  Gardens,  when  the 
rattle-snakes  and  puff-adders  were  greatly  excited  at 
the  same  time,  I  was  much  struck  at  the  similarity 
of  the  sound  produced  by  them ;  and  although  that 
made  by  the  rattle-snake  is  louder  and  shriller  than 
the  hissing  of  the  puff-adder,  yet  when  standing  at 
some  yards  distance  I  could  scarcely  distinguish  the  two. 
For  whatever  purpose  the  sound  is  produced  by  the  one 
species,  I  can  hardly  doubt  that  it  serves  for  the  same 
purpose  in  the  other  species ;  and  I  conclude  from  the 
threatening  gestures  made  at  the  same  time  by  many 
snakes,  that  their  hissing, — the  rattling  of  the  rattle- 
snake and  of  the  tail  of  the  Trigonocephalus, — the 
grating  of  the  scales  of  the  Echis, — and  the  dilatation 
of  the  hood  of  the  Cobra, — all  subserve  the  same  end, 

26  See  the  account  by  Dr.  Anderson,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1871,  p.  196. 

27  The  'American  Naturalist,'  Jan.  1872,  p.  32.    I  regret  that  I 
cannot  follow  Prof.  Shaler  in  believing  that  the  rattle  has  been  deve- 
loped, by  the  aid  of  natural  selection,  for  the  sake  of  producing  sounds 
which  deceive  and  attract  birds,  so  that  they  may  serve  as  prey  to  the 
snake.    I  do  not,  however,  wish  to  doubt  that  the  sounds  may  occa- 
sionally subserve  this  end.   But  the  conclusion  at  which  I  have  arrived, 
viz.  that  the  rattling  serves  as  a  warning  to  would-be  devourers,  appears 
to  me  much  more  probable,  as  it  connects  together  various  classes  of 
facts.     If  this  snake  had  acquired  its  rattle  and  the  habit  of  rattling, 
for  the  sake  of  attracting  prey,  it  does  not  seem  probable  that  it  would 
have  invariably  used  its  instrument  when  angered  or  disturbed.    Prof. 
Shaler  takes  nearly  the  same  view  as  I  do  of  the  manner  of  development 
of  the  rattle ;  and  I  have  always  held  this  opinion  since  observing  the 
Trigonocephalus  in  South  America. 


108  MEANS   OF   EXPRESSION  CHAP.  IV. 

namely,  to  make  them  appear  terrible  to  their 
enemies.28 

It  seems  at  first  a  probable  conclusion  that  venomous 
snakes,  such  as  the  foregoing,  from  being  already  so 
well  defended  by  their  poison-fangs,  would  never  be 
attacked  by  any  enemy ;  arid  consequently  would 
have  no  need  to  excite  additional  terror.  But  this 
is  far  from  being  the  case,  for  they  are  largely  preyed 
on  in  all  quarters  of  the  world  by  many  animals.  It 
is  well  known  that  pigs  are  employed  in  the  United 
States  to  clear  districts  infested  with  rattle-snakes, 
which  they  do  most  effectually.29  In  England  the 
hedgehog  attacks  and  devours  the  viper.  In  India, 
as  I  hear  from  Dr.  Jerdon,  several  kinds  of  hawks, 
and  at  least  one  mammal,  the  Herpestes,  kill  cobras 
and  other  venomous  species;30  and  so  it  is  in  South 
Africa.  Therefore  it  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  any 
sounds  or  signs  by  which  the  venomous  species  could 
instantly  make  themselves  recognised  as  dangerous, 
would  be  of  more  service  to  them  than  to  the  innocuous 
species  which  would  not  be  able,  if  attacked,  to  inflict 
any  real  injury. 

Having  said  thus  much  about  snakes,  I  am  tempted 


28  From  the  accounts  lately  collected,  and  given  in  the  *  Journal  of 
1  the  Linnean  Society,'  by  Mrs.  Barber,  on  the  habits  of  the  snakes 
of  South  Africa ;  and  from  the  accounts  published  by  several  writers, 
for  instance  by  Lawson,  of  the  rattle-snake  in  North  America, — it  does 
not  seem  improbable  that  the  terrific  appearance  of  snakes  and  the 
sounds  produced  by  them,  may  likewise  serve  in  procuring  prey,  by 
paralysing,  or  as  it  is  sometimes  called  fascinating,  the  smaller  animals. 

29  See  the  account   by   Dr.  K.  Brown,  in  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1871, 
p.  39.     He  says  that  as  soon  as  a  pig  sees  a  snake  it  rushes  upon  it  ; 
and  a  snake  makes  off  immediately  on  the  appearance  of  a  pig. 

3°  Dr.  Giinther  remarks  ('  Reptiles  of  British  India,'  p.  340)  on  the 
destruction  of  cobras  by  the  ichneumon  or  herpestes,  and  whilst 
the  cobras  are  young  by  the  jungle-fowl.  It  is  well  known  that  tho 
peacock  also  eagerly  kills  snakes. 


CHAP.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  109 

to  add  a  few  remarks  on  the  means  by  which  the  rattle 
of  the  rattle-snake  was  probably  developed.  Various 
animals,  including  some  lizards,  either  curl  or  vibrate 
their  tails  when  excited.  This  is  the  case  with  many 
kinds  of  snakes.31  In  the  Zoological  Gardens,  an 
innocuous  species,  the  Coronella  Sayi,  vibrates  its  tail  so 
rapidly  that  it  becomes  almost  invisible.  The  Trigono- 
cephalus,  before  alluded  to,  has  the  same  habit ;  and 
the  extremity  of  its  tail  is  a  little  enlarged,  or  ends 
in  a  bead.  In  the  Lachesis,  which  is  so  closely  allied 
to  the  rattle-snake  that  it  was  placed  by  LinnaBus  in 
the  same  genus,  the  tail  ends  in  a  single,  large,  lancet- 
shaped  point  or  scale.  With  some  snakes  the  skin,  as 
Professor  Shaler  remarks,  "is  more  imperfectly  de- 
"  tached  from  the  region  about  the  tail  than  at  other 
"  parts  of  the  body."  Now  if  we  suppose  that  the  end 
of  the  tail  of  some  ancient  American  species  was  en- 
larged, and  was  covered  by  a  single  large  scale,  this 
could  hardly  have  been  cast  off  at  the  successive  moults. 
In  this  case  it  would  have  been  permanently  retained, 
and  at  each  period  of  growth,  as  the  snake  grew  larger, 
a  new  scale,  larger  than  the  last,  would  have  been 
formed  above  it,  and  would  likewise  have  been  retained. 
The  foundation  for  the  development  of  a  rattle  would 
thus  have  been  laid  ;  and  it  would  have  been  habitually 
used,  if  the  species,  like  so  many  others,  vibrated  its 
tail  whenever  it  was  irritated.  That  the  rattle  has  since 


31  Prof.  Cope  enumerates  a  number  of  kinds  in  his  '  Method  of  Crea- 
tion of  Organic  Types,'  read  before  the  American  Phil.  Soc.,  December 
15th,  1871,  p.  20.  Prof.  Cope  takes  the  same  view  as  I  do  of  the  use  of 
the  gestures  and  sounds  made  by  snakes.  I  briefly  alluded  to  this 
subject  in  the  last  edition  of  my  '  Origin  of  Species.'  Since  the  passages 
in  the  text  above  have  been  printed,  I  have  been  pleased  to  find  that 
Mr.  Henderson  ('  The  American  Naturalist,'  May,  1872,  p.  260)  also 
takes  a  similar  view  of  the  use  of  the  rattle,  namely  "  in  preventing  an 
•'  attack  from  being  made." 


110  MEANS   OF   EXPRESSION  CHAP.  IV 

been  specially  developed  to  serve  as  an  efficient  sound- 
producing  instrument,  there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt ;  for 
even  the  vertebrae  included  within  the  extremity  of  the 
tail  have  been  altered  in  shape  and  cohere.  But  there 
is  no  greater  improbability  in  various  structures,  such 
as  the  rattle  of  the  rattle-snake, — the  lateral  scales  of 
the  Echis, — the  neck  with  the  included  ribs  of  the 
Cobra, — and  the  whole  body  of  the  puff-adder, — having 
been  modified  for  the  sake  of  warning  and  frightening 
away  their  enemies,  than  in  a  bird,  namely,  the  won- 
derful Secretary-hawk  (Gypogeranus)  having  had  its 
whole  frame  modified  for  the  sake  of  killing  snakes 
with  impunity.  It  is  highly  probable,  judging  from 
what  we  have  before  seen,  that  this  bird  would  ruffle 
its  feathers  whenever  it  attacked  a  snake  ;  and  it  is 
certain  that  the  Herpestes,  when  it  eagerly  rushes  to 
attack  a  snake,  erects  the  hair  all  over  its  body,  and 
especially  that  on  its  tail.32  We  have  also  seen  that 
some  porcupines,  when  angered  or  alarmed  at  the  sight 
of  a  snake,  rapidly  vibrate  their  tails,  thus  producing  a 
peculiar  sound  by  the  striking  together  of  the  hollow 
quills.  So  that  here  both  the  attackers  and  the  at- 
tacked endeavour  to  make  themselves  as  dreadful 
as  possible  to  each  other ;  and  both  possess  for  this 
purpose  specialised  means,  which,  oddly  enough,  are 
nearly  the  same  in  some  of  these  cases.  Finally  we  can 
see  that  if,  on  the  one  hand,  those  individual  snakes, 
which  were  best  able  to  frighten  away  their  enemies, 
escaped  best  from  being  devoured ;  and  if,  on  the  other 
hand,  those  individuals  of  the  attacking  enemy  survived 
in  larger  numbers  which  were  the  best  fitted  for  the 
dangerous  task  of  killing  and  devouring  venomous 
snakes ; — then  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other,  bene- 


32  Mr.  des  Vceux.  in  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1871,  p.  3. 


CHAP.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  Ill 

ficial  variations,  supposing  the  characters  in  question  to 
vary,  would  commonly  have  been  preserved  through  the 
survival  of  the  fittest. 

TJie  Drawing  back  and  pressure  of  the  Ears  to  the 
Head. — The  ears  through  their  movements  are  highly 
expressive  in  many  animals;  but  in  some,  such  as 
man,  the  higher  apes,  and  many  ruminants,  they  fail 
in  this  respect.  A  slight  difference  in  position  serves 
to  express  in  the  plainest  manner  a  different  state  of 
mind,  as  we  may  daily  see  in  the  dog;  but  we  are 
here  concerned  only  with  the  ears  being  drawn  closely 
backwards  and  pressed  to  the  head.  A  savage  frame 
of  mind  is  thus  shown,  but  only  in  the  case  of  those 
animals  which  fight  with  their  teeth;  and  the  care 
which  they  take  to  prevent  their  ears  being  seized  by 
their  antagonists,  accounts  for  this  position.  Conse- 
quently, through  habit  and  association,  whenever  they 
feel  slightly  savage,  or  pretend  in  their  play  to  be 
savage,  their  ears  are  drawn  back.  That  this  is  the 
true  explanation  may  be  inferred  from  the  relation 
which  exists  in  very  many  animals  between  their  manner 
of  fighting  and  the  retraction  of  their  ears. 

All  the  Carnivora  fight  with  their  canine  teeth,  and 
all,  as  far  as  I  have  observed,  draw  their  ears  back 
when  feeling  savage.  This  may  be  continually  seen  with 
dogs  when  fighting  in  earnest,  and  with  puppies 
fighting  in  play.  The  movement  is  different  from  the 
falling  down  and  slight  drawing  back  of  the  ears, 
when  a  dog  feels  pleased  and  is  caressed  by  his  master. 
The  retraction  of  the  ears  may  likewise  be  seen  in 
kittens  fighting  together  in  their  play,  and  in  full- 
grown  cats  when  really  savage,  as  before  illustrated  in 
fig.  9  (p.  58).  Although  their  ears  are  thus  to  a  large 
extent  protected,  yet  they  often  get  much  torn  in  old 


1 12  MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  CHAP.  IV. 

male  cats  during  their  mutual  battles.  The  same 
movement  is  very  striking  in  tigers,  leopards,  &c., 
whilst  growling  over  their  food  in  menageries.  The  lynx 
has  remarkably  long  ears;  and  their  retraction,  when 
one  of  these  animals  is  approached  in  its  cage,  is  very 
conspicuous,  and  is  eminently  expressive  of  its  savage 
disposition.  Even  one  of  the  Eared  Seals,  the  Otaria 
pusilla,  which  has  very  small  ears,  draws  them  backwards, 
when  it  makes  a  savage  rush  at  the  legs  of  its  keeper. 

When  horses  fight  together  they  use  their  incisors  for 
biting,  and  their  fore-legs  for  striking,  much  more  than 
they  do  their  hind-legs  for  kicking  backwards.  This 
has  been  observed  when  stallions  have  broken  loose  and 
have  fought  together,  and  may  likewise  be  inferred 
from  the  kind  of  wounds  which  they  inflict  on  each 
other.  Every  one  recognises  the  vicious  appear- 
ance which  the  drawing  back  of  the  ears  gives  to  a 
horse.  This  movement  is  very  different  from  that  of 
listening  to  a  sound  behind.  If  an  ill-tempered  horse 
in  a  stall  is  inclined  to  kick  backwards,  his  ears  are 
retracted  from  habit,  though  he  has  no  intention  or 
power  to  bite.  But  when  a  horse  throws  up  both  hind- 
legs  in  play,  as  when  entering  an  open  field,  or  when  just 
touched  by  the  whip,  he  does  not  generally  depress 
his  ears,  for  he  does  not  then  feel  vicious.  G-uanacoes 
fight  savagely  with  their  teeth ;  and  they  must  do  so 
frequently,  for  I  found  the  hides  of  several  which  I  shot 
in  Patagonia  deeply  scored.  So  do  camels;  and  both 
these  animals,  when  savage,  draw  their  ears  closely 
backwards.  Guanacoes,  as  I  have  noticed,  when  not 
intending  to  bite,  but  merely  to  spit  their  offensive 
saliva  from  a  distance  at  an  intruder,  retract  their  ears. 
Even  the  hippopotamus,  when  threatening  with  its 
widely-open  enormous  mouth  a  comrade,  draws  back 
its  small  ears,  just  like  a  horse. 


CHAP.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  113 

Now  what  a  contrast  is  presented  between  the 
foregoing  animals  and  cattle,  sheep,  or  goats,  which 
never  use  their  teeth  in  fighting,  and  never  draw  back 
their  ears  when  enraged!  Although  sheep  and  goats 
appear  such  placid  animals,  the  males  often  join  in 
furious  contests.  As  deer  form  a  closely  related  family, 
and  as  I  did  not  know  that  they  ever  fought  with  their 
teeth,  I  was  much  surprised  at  the  account  given  by 
Major  Ross  King  of  the  Moose-deer  in  Canada.  He 
says,  when  "two  males  chance  to  meet,  laying  back 
'•  their  ears  and  gnashing  their  teeth  together,  they 
"rush  at  each  other  with  appalling  fury."33  But 
Mr.  Bartlett  informs  me  that  some  species  of  deer  fight 
savagely  with  their  teeth,  so  that  the  drawing  back  of 
the  ears  by  the  moose  accords  with  our  rule.  Several 
kinds  of  kangaroos,  kept  in  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
fight  by  scratching  with  their  fore-feet  and  by  kicking 
with  their  hind-legs;  but  they  never  bite  each  other, 
and  the  keepers  have  never  seen  them  draw  back  their 
ears  when  angered.  Rabbits  fight  chiefly  by  kicking 
and  scratching,  but  they  likewise  bite  each  other ;  and  I 
have  known  one  to  bite  off  half  the  tail  of  its  antagonist. 
At  the  commencement  of  their  battles  they  lay  back 
their  ears,  but  afterwards,  as  they  bound  over  and  kick 
each  other,  they  keep  their  ears  erect,  or  move  them 
much  about. 

Mr.  Bartlett  watched  a  wild  boar  quarrelling  rather 
savagely  with  his  sow ;  and  both  had  their  mouths  open 
and  their  ears  drawn  backwards.  But  this  does  not 
appear  to  be  a  common  action  with  domestic  pigs  when 
quarrelling.  Boars  fight  together  by  striking  upwards 
with  their  tusks;  and  Mr.  Bartlett  doubts  whether 
they  then  draw  back  their  ears.  Elephants,  which  in 


1  The  Sportsman  and  Naturalist  in  Canada,'  1866,  p.  53. 
6 


114  MEANS  OF    EXPEESSION  CHAT.  IV. 

like  manner  fight  with  their  tusks,  do  not  retract  their 
ears,  but,  on  the  contrary,  erect  them  when  rushing  at 
each  other  or  at  an  enemy. 

The  rhinoceroses  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  fight  with 
their  nasal  horns,  and  have  never  been  seen  to  attempt 
biting  each  other  except  in  play ;  and  the  keepers  are 
convinced  that  they  do  not  draw  back  their  ears,  like 
horses  and  dogs,  when  feeling  savage.  The  following 
statement,  therefore,  by  Sir  S.  Baker 34  is  inex- 
plicable, namely,  that  a  rhinoceros,  which  he  shot  in 
North  Africa,  "had  no  ears;  they  had  been  bitten  off 
"  close  to  the  head  by  another  of  the  same  species 
"  while  fighting;  and  this  mutilation  is  by  no  means 
"  uncommon." 

Lastly,  with  respect  to  monkeys.  Some  kinds,  which 
have  moveable  ears,  and  which  fight  with  their  teeth — 
for  instance  the  Cercopithecus  ruler — draw  back  their  ears 
when  irritated  just  like  dogs;  and  they  then  have  a 
very  spiteful  appearance.  Other  kinds,  as  the  Inuus 
ecaudatus,  apparently  do  not  thus  act.  Again,  other 
kinds — and  this  is  a  great  anomaly  in  comparison  with 
most  other  animals — retract  their  ears,  show  their  teeth, 
and  jabber,  when  they  are  pleased  by  being  caressed. 
I  observed  this  in  two  or  three  species  of  Macacus,  and 
in  the  Cynopithecus  niger.  This  expression,  owing  to 
our  familiarity  with  dogs,  would  never  be  recognised 
as  one  of  joy  or  pleasure  by  those  unacquainted  with 
monkeys. 

Erection  of  the  Ears. — This  movement  requires  hardly 
any  notice.  All  animals  which  have  the  power  of  freely 
moving  their  ears,  when  they  are  startled,  or  when 
they  closely  observe  any  object,  direct  their  ears  to 


84  '  TLe  Nile  Tributaries  of  Abyssinia,'  1867,  p.  443. 


CHAP.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  115' 

the  point  towards  which  they  are  looking,  in  order  to 
hear  any  sound  from  this  quarter.  At  the  same  time 
they  generally  raise  their  heads,  as  all  their  organs  of 
sense  are  there  situated,  and  some  of  the  smaller  animals 
rise  on  their  hind  legs.  Even  those  kinds  which  squat 
on  the  ground  or  instantly  flee  away  to  avoid  danger, 
generally  act  momentarily  in  this  manner,  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  source  and  nature  of  the  danger.  The 
head  being  raised,  with  erected  ears  and  eyes  directed 
forwards,  gives  an  unmistakeable  expression  of  close 
attention  to  any  animal. 


116  SPECIAL  EXPBESSIONS:  CHAP.  V. 


CHAPTER   V. 

SPECIAL  EXPKESSIONS  OF  ANIMALS. 

The  Dog,  various  expressive  movements  of — Cats  —  Horses  — 
Ruminants  —  Monkeys,  their  expression  of  joy  and  affection  — 
Of  pain  —  Anger  —  Astonishment  and  Terror. 

TJie  Dog. — I  have  already  described  (figs.  5  and  7) 
the  appearance  of  a  dog  approaching  another  dog  with 
hostile  intentions,  namely,  with  erected  ears,  eyes 
intently  directed  forwards,  hair  on  the  neck  and  back 
bristling,  gait  remarkably  stiff,  with  the  tail  upright 
and  rigid.  So  familiar  is  this  appearance  to  us,  that 
an  angry  man  is  sometimes  said  "  to  have  his  back 
"  up."  Of  the  above  points,  the  stiff  gait  and  upright 
tail  alone  require  further  discussion.  Sir  C.  Bell 
remarks *  that,  when  a  tiger  or  wolf  is  struck  by 
its  keeper  and  is  suddenly  roused  to  ferocity,  "every 
'•'  muscle  is  in  tension,  and  the  limbs  are  in  an  attitude 
"  of  strained  exertion,  prepared  to  spring."  This  ten- 
sion of  the  muscles  and  consequent  stiff  gait  may  be 
accounted  for  on  the  principle  of  associated  habit,  for 
anger  has  continually  led  to  fierce  struggles,  and  con- 
sequently to  all  the  muscles  of  the  body  having  been 
violently  exerted.  There  is  also  reason  to  suspect 
that  the  muscular  system  requires  some  short  pre- 
paration, or  some  degree  of  innervation,  before  being 
brought  into  strong  action.  My  own  sensations  lead 
me  to  this  inference;  but  I  cannot  discover  that  it 


'  The  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  1811,  p.  190. 


CHAP.  V.  DOGS.  117 

is  a  conclusion  admitted  by  physiologists.  Sir  J. 
Paget,  however,  informs  me  that  when  muscles  are 
suddenly  contracted  with  the  greatest  force,  without 
any  preparation,  they  are  liable  to  be  ruptured,  as 
when  a  man  slips  unexpectedly;  but  that  this  rarely 
occurs  when  an  action,  however  violent,  is  deliberately 
performed. 

With  respect  to  the  upright  position  of  the  tail,  it 
seems  to  depend  (but  whether  this  is  really  the  case  I 
know  not)  on  the  elevator  muscles  being  more  powerful 
than  the  depressors,  so  that  when  all  the  muscles  of 
the  hinder  part  of  the  body  are  in  a  state  of  tension, 
the  tail  is  raised.  A  dog  in  cheerful  spirits,  and 
trotting  before  his  master  with  high,  elastic  steps, 
generally  carries  his  tail  aloft,  though  it  is  not  held 
nearly  so  stiffly  as  when  he  is  angered.  A  horse  when 
first  turned  out  into  an  open  field,  may  be  seen  to  trot 
with  long  elastic  strides,  the  head  and  tail  being  held 
high  aloft.  Even  cows  when  they  frisk  about  from 
pleasure,  throw  up  their  tails  in  a  ridiculous  fashion. 
So  it  is  with  various  animals  in  the  Zoological  Gardens. 
The  position  of  the  tail,  however,  in  certain  cases,  is 
determined  by  special  circumstances;  thus  as  soon  as 
a  horse  breaks  into  a  gallop,  at  full  speed,  he  always 
lowers  his  tail,  so  that  as  little  resistance  as  possible 
may  be  offered  to  the  air. 

When  a  dog  is  on  the  point  of  springing  on  his 
antagonist,  he  utters  a  savage  growl;  the  ears  are 
pressed  closely  backwards,  and  the  upper  lip  (fig.  14) 
is  retracted  out  of  the  way  of  his  teeth,  especially  of  his 
canines.  These  movements  may  be  observed  with  dogs 
and  puppies  in  their  play.  But  if  a  dog  gets  really 
savage  in  his  play,  his  expression  immediately  changes. 
This,  however,  is  simply  due  to  the  lips  and  ears  being 
drawn  back  with  much  greater  energy.  If  a  dog  only 


118 


SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS: 


CHAP.  V. 


snarls  at  another,  the  lip  is  generally  retracted  on  one 
side  alone,  namely  towards  his  enemy. 

The  movements  of  a  dog  whilst  exhibiting  affection 
towards  his  master  were  described  (figs.  6  and  8)  in 
our  second  chapter.  These  consist  in.  the  head  and 


Fig.  14.    Head  of  Bnarling  Dog.    From  life,  by  Mr.  Wood. 

whole  body  being  lowered  and  thrown  into  flexuous 
movements,  with  the  tail  extended  and  wagged  from 
side  to  side.  The  ears  fall  down  and  are  drawn  some- 
what backwards,  which  causes  the  eyelids  to  be  elon- 
gated, and  alters  the  whole  appearance  of  the  face. 
The  lips  hang  loosely,  and  the  hair  remains  smooth. 
All  these  movements  or  gestures  are  explicable,  as  I 
believe,  from  their  standing  in  complete  antithesis  to 
those  naturally  assumed  by  a  savage  dog  under  a 


CHAP.  V.  DOGS.  119 

directly  opposite  state  of  inind.  When  a  man  merely 
speaks  to,  or  just  notices,  his  dog,  we  see  the  last 
vestige  of  these  movements  in  a  slight  wag  of  the  tail, 
without  any  other  movement  of  the  body,  and  without 
even  the  ears  being  lowered.  Dogs  also  exhibit  their 
affection  by  desiring  to  rub  against  their  masters,  and 
to  be  rubbed  or  patted  by  them. 

Gratiolet  explains  the  above  gestures  of  affection  in 
the  following  manner :  and  the  reader  can  judge 
whether  the  explanation  appears  satisfactory.  Speaking 
of  animals  in  general,  including  the  dog,  he  says,2 
"  C'est  toujours  la  partie  la  plus  sensible  de  leurs  corps 
"  qui  recherche  les  caresses  ou  les  donne.  Lorsque 
"  toute  la  longueur  des  flancs  et  du  corps  est  sensible, 
"  Tanimal  serpente  et  rampe  sous  les  caresses ;  et  ces 
"  ondulations  se  propageant  le  long  des  muscles  analo- 
"  gues  des  segments  jusqu'aux  extremites  de  la  colonne 
"  vertebrale,  la  queue  se  ploie  et  s'agite."  Further 
on,  he  adds,  that  dogs,  when  feeling  affectionate,  lower 
their  ears  in  order  to  exclude  all  sounds,  so  that  their 
whole  attention  may  be  concentrated  on  the  caresses 
of  their  master ! 

Dogs  have  another  and  striking  way  of  exhibiting 
their  affection,  namely,  by  licking  the  hands  or  faces  of 
their  masters.  They  sometimes  lick  other  dogs,  and 
then  it  is  always  their  chops.  I  have  also  seen  dogs 
licking  cats  with  whom  they  were  friends.  This  habit 
probably  originated  in  the  females  carefully  licking 
their  puppies — the  dearest  object  of  their  love — for  the 
sake  of  cleansing  them.  They  also  often  give  their 
puppies,  after  a  short  absence,  a  few  cursory  licks,  appa- 
rently from  affection.  Thus  the  habit  will  have  become 
associated  with  the  emotion  of  love,  however  it  may 


De  la  Physionomie/  1865,  pp.  187,  218. 


120  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  CHAP. v. 

afterwards  be  aroused.  It  is  now  so  firmly  inherited  or 
innate,  that  it  is  transmitted  equally  to  both  sexes.  A 
female  terrier  of  mine  lately  had  her  puppies  de- 
stroyed, and  though  at  all  times  a  very  affectionate 
creature,  I  was  much  struck  with  the  manner  in  which 
she  then  tried  to  satisfy  her  instinctive  maternal  love 
by  expending  it  on  me;  and  her  desire  to  lick  my 
hands  rose  to  an  insatiable  passion. 

The  same  principle  probably  explains  why  dogs,  when 
feeling  affectionate,  like  rubbing  against  their  masters 
and  being  rubbed  or  patted  by  them,  for  from  the 
nursing  of  their  puppies,  contact  with  a  beloved  object 
has  become  firmly  associated  in  their  minds  with  the 
emotion  of  love. 

The  feeling  of  affection  of  a  dog  towards  his  master 
is  combined  with  a  strong  sense  of  submission,  which  is 
akin  to  fear.  Hence  dogs  not  only  lower  their  bodies  and 
crouch  a  little  as  they  approach  their  masters,  but  some- 
times throw  themselves  on  the  ground  with  their  bellies 
upwards.  This  is  a  movement  as  completely  opposite 
as  is  possible  to  any  show  of  resistance.  I  formerly 
possessed  a  large  dog  who  was  not  at  all  afraid  to  fight 
with  other  dogs;  but  a  wolf-like  shepherd-dog  in  the 
neighbourhood,  though  not  ferocious  and  not  so  powerful 
as  my  dog,  had  a  strange  influence  over  him.  When 
they  met  on  the  road,  my  dog  used  to  run  to  meet 
him,  with  his  tail  partly  tucked  in  between  his  legs  and 
hair  not  erected;  and  then  he  would  throw  himself  on 
the  ground,  belly  upwards.  By  this  action  he  seemed 
to  say  more  plainly  than  by  words,  "  Behold,  I  am 
"  your  slave." 

A  pleasurable  and  excited  state  of  mind,  associated 
with  affection,  is  exhibited  by  some  dogs  in  a  very 
peculiar  manner  ;  namely,  by  grinning.  This  was 
noticed  long  ago  by  Somerville,  who  says, 


CHAP.  V  DOGS.  121 

"  And  with  a  courtly  grin,  the  fawning  hound 
Salutes  thee  cow'ring,  his  wide  op'ning  nose 
Upward  he  curls,  and  his  large  sloe-back  eyes 
Melt  in  soft  blandishments,  and  humble  joy.' 

The  Chase,  book  i, 

Sir  W.  Scott's  famous  Scotch  greyhound,  Maida, 
had  this  habit,  and  it  is  common  with  terriers.  I 
have  also  seen  it  in  a  Spitz  and  in  a  sheep-dog.  Mr. 
Riviere,  who  has  particularly  attended  to  this  expres- 
sion, informs  me  that  it  is  rarely  displayed  in  a  perfect 
manner,  but  is  quite  common  in  a  lesser  degree.  The 
upper  lip  during  the  act  of  grinning  is  retracted,  as  in 
snarling,  so  that  the  canines  are  exposed,  and  the  ears 
are  drawn  backwards;  but  the  general  appearance  of 
the  animal  clearly  shows  that  anger  is  not  felt.  Sir 
C.  Bell3  remarks  "Dogs,  in  their  expression  of  fond- 
"  ness,  have  a  slight  eversion  of  the  lips,  and  grin 
"  and  sniff  amidst  their  gambols,  in  a  way  that  re- 
"  sembles  laughter."  Some  persons  speak  of  the 
grin  as  a  smile,  but  if  it  had  been  really  a  smile, 
we  should  see  a  similar,  though  more  pronounced, 
movement  of  the  lips  and  ears,  when  dogs  utter  their 
bark  of  joy;  but  this  is  not  the  case,  although  a 
bark  of  joy  often  follows  a  grin.  On  the  other  hand, 
dogs,  when  playing  with  their  comrades  or  masters, 
almost  always  pretend  to  bite  each  other ;  and  they 
then  retract,  though  not  energetically,  their  lips  and 
ears.  Hence  I  suspect  that  there  is  a  tendency  in  some 
dogs,  whenever  they  feel  lively  pleasure  combined  with 
affection,  to  act  through  habit  and  association  on  the 
same  muscles,  as  in  playfully  biting  each  other,  or  their 
masters'  hands. 

I  have  described,  in  the  second  chapter,  the  gait  and 


*  *  The  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  1844,  p.  140. 


122  SPECIAL   EXPRESSIONS  I  CHAP.  V. 

appearance  of  a  dog  when  cheerful,  and  the  marked 
antithesis  presented  by  the  same  animal  when  dejected 
and  disappointed,  with  his  head,  ears,  body,  tail,  and 
chops  drooping,  and  eyes  dull.  Under  the  expectation 
of  any  great  pleasure,  dogs  bound  and  jump  about  in 
an  extravagant  manner,  and  bark  for  joy.  The  ten- 
dency to  bark  under  this  state  of  mind  is  inherited,  or 
runs  in  the  breed :  greyhounds  rarely  bark,  whilst  the 
Spitz-dog  barks  so  incessantly  on  starting  for  a  walk 
with  his  master  that  he  becomes  a  nuisance. 

An  agony  of  pain  is  expressed  by  dogs  in  nearly  the 
same  way  as  by  many  other  animals,  namely,  by  howling, 
writhing,  and  contortions  of  the  whole  body. 

Attention  is  shown  by  the  head  being  raised,  with 
the  ears  erected,  and  eyes  intently  directed  towards  the 
object  or  quarter  under  observation.  If  it  be  a  sound 
and  the  source  is  not  known,  the  head  is  often  turned 
obliquely  from  side  to  side  in  a  most  significant  manner, 
apparently  in  order  to  judge  with  more  exactness  from 
what  point  the  sound  proceeds.  But  I  have  seen  a 
dog  greatly  surprised  at  a  new  noise,  turning  his 
head  to  one  side  through  habit,  though  he  clearly 
perceived  the  source  of  the  noise.  Dogs,  as  formerly 
remarked,  when  their  attention  is  in  any  way  aroused, 
whilst  watching  some  object,  or  attending  to  some 
sound,  often  lift  up  one  paw  (fig.  4)  and  keep  it  doubled 
up,  as  if  to  make  a  slow  and  stealthy  approach. 

A  dog  under  extreme  terror  will  throw  himself  down, 
howl,  and  void  his  excretions ;  but  the  hair,  I  believe, 
does  not  become  erect  unless  some  anger  is  felt.  I  have 
seen  a  dog  much  terrified  at  a  band  of  musicians  who  were 
playing  loudly  outside  the  house,  with  every  muscle  of 
his  body  trembling,  with  his  heart  palpitating  so  quickly 
that  the  beats  could  hardly  be  counted,  and  panting  for 
breath  with  widely  open  mouth,  in  the  same  manner 


CHAP.  V.  DOGS.  123 

as  a  terrified  man  does.  Yet  this  dog  had  not  exerted 
himself;  he  had  only  wandered  slowly  and  restlessly 
about  the  room,  and  the  day  was  cold. 

Even  a  very  slight  degree  of  fear  is  invariably  shown 
by  the  tail  being  tucked  in  between  the  legs.  This 
tucking  in  of  the  tail  is  accompanied  by  the  ears  being 
drawn  backwards ;  but  they  are  not  pressed  closely  to 
the  head,  as  in  snarling,  and  they  are  not  lowered,  as 
when  a  dog  is  pleased  or  affectionate.  When  two  young 
dogs  chase  each  other  in  play,  the  one  that  runs  away 
always  keeps  his  tail  tucked  inwards.  So  it  is  when  a 
dog,  in  the  highest  spirits,  careers  like  a  mad  creature 
round  and  round  his  master  in  circles,  or  in  figures  of 
eight.  He  then  acts  as  if  another  dog  were  chasing  him. 
This  curious  kind  of  play,  which  must  be  familiar  to 
every  one  who  has  attended  to  dogs,  is  particularly  apt 
to  be  excited,  after  the  animal  has  been  a  little  startled 
or  frightened,  as  by  his  master  suddenly  jumping  out 
on  him  in  the  dusk.  In  this  case,  as  well  as  when  two 
young  dogs  are  chasing  each  other  in  play,  it  appears 
as  if  the  one  that  runs  away  was  afraid  of  the  other 
catching  him  by  the  tail ;  but  as  far  as  I  can  find  out, 
dogs  very  rarely  catch  each  other  in  this  manner. 
I  asked  a  gentleman,  who  had  kept  foxhounds  all 
his  life,  and  he  applied  to  other  experienced  sports- 
men, whether  they  had  ever  seen  hounds  thus  seize  a 
fox ;  but  they  never  had.  It  appears  that  when  a  dog 
is  chased,  or  when  in  danger  of  being  struck  behind,  or 
of  anything  falling  on  him,  in  all  these  cases  he  wishes 
to  withdraw  as  quickly  as  possible  his  whole  hind- 
quarters, and  that  from  some  sympathy  or  connection 
between  the  muscles,  the  tail  is  then  drawn  closely 
inwards. 

A  similarly  connected  movement  between  the  hind- 
quarters and  the  tail  may  be  observed  in  the  hyaena. 


124  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  CHAP. v. 

Mr.  Bartlett  informs  me  that  when  two  of  these  animals 
fight  together,  they  are  mutually  conscious  of  the  won- 
derful power  of  each  other's  jaws,  and  are  extremely 
cautious.  They  well  know  that  if  one  of  their  legs  were 
seized,  the  bone  would  instantly  be  crushed  into  atoms ; 
hence  they  approach  each  other  kneeling,  with  their  legs 
turned  as  much  as  possible  inwards,  and  with  their  whole 
bodies  bowed,  so  as  not  to  present  any  salient  point ;  the 
tail  at  the  same  time  being  closely  tucked  in  between 
the  legs.  In  this  attitude  they  approach  each  other 
sideways,  or  even  partly  backwards.  So  again  with 
deer,  several  of  the  species,  when  savage  and  fighting, 
tuck  in  their  tails.  When  one  horse  in  a  field  tries 
to  bite  the  hind-quarters  of  another  in  play,  or  when 
a  rough  boy  strikes  a  donkey  from  behind,  the  hind- 
quarters and  the  tail  are  drawn  in,  though  it  does  not 
appear  as  if  this  were  done  merely  to  save  the  tail  from 
being  injured.  We  have  also  seen  the  reverse  of  these 
movements ;  for  when  an  animal  trots  with  high  elastic 
steps,  the  tail  is  almost  always  carried  aloft. 

As  I  have  said,  when  a  dog  is  chased  and  runs  away, 
he  keeps  his  ears  directed  backwards  but  still  open ;  and 
this  is  clearly  done  for  the  sake  of  hearing  the  footsteps 
of  his  pursuer.  From  habit  the  ears  are  often  held  in 
this  same  position,  and  the  tail  tucked  in,  when  the 
danger  is  obviously  in  front.  I  have  repeatedly  noticed, 
with  a  timid  terrier  of  mine,  that  when  she  is  afraid 
of  some  object  in  front,  the  nature  of  which  she  perfectly 
knows  and  does  not  need  to  reconnoitre,  yet  she  will 
for  a  long  time  hold  her  ears  and  tail  in  this  position, 
looking  the  image  of  discomfort.  Discomfort,  without 
any  fear,  is  similarly  expressed :  thus,  one  day  I  went 
out  of  doors,  just  at  the  time  when  this  same  dog  knew 
that  her  dinner  would  be  brought.  I  did  not  call  her, 
but  she  wished  much  to  accompany  me,  and  at  the  same 


CHAP.  V.  DOGS.  125 

time  she  wished  much  for  her  dinner;  and  there  she 
stood,  first  looking  one  way  and  then  the  other,  with 
her  tail  tucked  in  and  ears  drawn  back,  presenting  an 
unmistakable  appearance  of  perplexed  discomfort. 

Almost  all  the  expressive  movements  now  described, 
with  the  exception  of  the  grinning  from  joy,  are  innate 
or  instinctive,  for  they  are  common  to  all  the  indivi- 
duals, young  and  old,  of  all  the  breeds.  Most  of  them 
are  likewise  common  to  the  aboriginal  parents  of  the 
dog,  namely  the  wolf  and  jackal;  and  some  of  them 
to  other  species  of  the  same  group.  Tamed  wolves  and 
jackals,  when  caressed  by  their  masters,  jump  about 
for  joy,  wag  their  tails,  lower  their  ears,  lick  their 
master's  hands,  crouch  down,  and  even  throw  themselves 
on  the  ground  belly  upwards.4  I  have  seen  a  rather 
fox-like  African  jackal,  from  the  Gaboon,  depress 
its  ears  when  caressed.  Wolves  and  jackals,  when 
frightened,  certainly  tuck  in  their  tails ;  and  a  tamed 
jackal  has  been  described  as  careering  round  his  master 
in  circles  and  figures  of  eight,  like  a  dog,  with  his  tail 
between  his  legs. 

It  has  been  stated 5  that  foxes,  however  tame,  never 
display  any  of  the  above  expressive  movements;  but 
this  is  not  strictly  accurate.  Many  years  ago  I  observed 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  and  recorded  the  fact  at  the 
time,  that  a  very  tame  English  fox,  when  caressed  by 
the  keeper,  wagged  its  tail,  depressed  its  ears,  and  then 
threw  itself  on  the  ground,  belly  upwards.  The  black  fox 

4  Many  particulars  are  given  by  Gueldenstadt  in  his  account  of 
the  jackal  in  Nov.  Comm.   Acad.  Sc.  Imp.  Petrop.   1775,   torn.   xx. 
p.  449.    See  also  another  excellent  account  of  tha  manners  of  this 
animal  and  of  its  play,  in  '  Land  and  Water,'  October,  1869.     Lieut. 
Annesley,  R.A.,  has  also  communicated  to  me  some  particulars  with 
respect  to  the  jackal.    I  have  made  many  inquiries  about  wolves  and 
jackals  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  and  have  observed  them  for  myself. 

5  '  Land  and  Water/  November  G,  1869. 


126  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  CHAP. v. 

jf  North  America  likewise  depressed  its  ears  in  a  slight 
degree.  But  I  believe  that  foxes  never  lick  the  hands 
of  their  masters,  and  I  have  been  assured  that  when 
frightened  they  never  tuck  in  their  tails.  If  the 
explanation  which  I  have  given  of  the  expression  of 
affection,  in  dogs  be  admitted,  then  it  would  appear 
that  animals  which  have  never  been  domesticated — 
namely  wolves,  jackals,  and  even  foxes — have  never- 
theless acquired,  through  the  principle  of  antithesis, 
certain  expressive  gestures ;  for  it  is  not  probable  that 
these  animals,  confined  in  cages,  should  have  learnt 
them  by  imitating  dogs. 

Cats. — I  have  already  described  the  actions  of  a  cat 
(fig.  9),  when  feeling  savage  and  not  terrified.  She 
assumes  a  crouching  attitude  and  occasionally  protrudes 
her  fore-feet,  with  the  claws  exserted  ready  for  striking. 
The  tail  is  extended,  being  curled  or  lashed  from  side  to 
side.  The  hair  is  not  erected — at  least  it  was  not  so  in 
the  few  cases  observed  by  me.  The  ears  are  drawn 
closely  backwards  and  the  teeth  are  shown.  Low 
savage  growls  are  uttered.  We  can  understand  why 
the  attitude  assumed  by  a  cat  when  preparing  to  fight 
with  another  cat,  or  in  any  way  greatly  irritated,  is  so 
widely  different  from  that  of  a  dog  approaching  another 
dog  with  hostile  intentions;  for  the  cat  uses  her  fore- 
feet for  striking,  and  this  renders  a  crouching  position 
convenient  or  necessary.  She  is  also  much  more 
accustomed  than  a  dog  to  lie  concealed  and  suddenly 
spring  on  her  prey.  No  cause  can  be  assigned  with 
certainty  for  the  tail  being  lashed  or  curled  from  side  to 
side.  This  habit  is  common  to  many  other  animals — for 
instance,  to  the  puma,  when  prepared  to  spring  ;6  but 


Azara, '  Quadrupedes  du  Paraguay,'  1801,  torn.  i.  p.  136. 


CHAP.  V.  CATS.  127 

it  is  not  common  to  dogs,  or  to  foxes,  as  I  infer  from 
Mr.  St.  John's  account  of  a  fox  lying  in  wait  and 
seizing  a  hare.  We  have  already  seen  that  some  kinds 
of  lizards  and  various  snakes,  \vhen  excited,  rapidly 
vibrate  the  tips  of  their  tails.  It  would  appear  as  if, 
under  strong  excitement,  there  existed  an  uncontrollable 
desire  for  movement  of  some  kind,  owing  to  nerve-force 
being  freely  liberated  from  the  excited  sensorium ;  and 
that  as  the  tail  is  left  free,  and  as  its  movement  does 
not  disturb  the  general  position  of  the  body,  it  is  curled 
or  lashed  about. 

All  the  movements  of  a  cat,  when  feeling  affectionate, 
are  in  complete  antithesis  to  those  just  described.  She 
now  stands  upright,  with  slightly  arched  back,  tail  per- 
pendicularly raised,  and  ears  erected ;  and  she  rubs  her 
cheeks  and  flanks  against  her  master  or  mistress.  The 
desire  to  rub  something  is  so  strong  in  cats  under  this 
state  of  mind,  that  they  may  often  be  seen  rubbing 
themselves  against  the  legs  of  chairs  or  tables,  or 
against  door-posts.  This  manner  of  expressing  affection 
probably  originated  through  association,  as  in  the  case 
of  dogs,  from  the  mother  nursing  and  fondling  her 
young ;  and  perhaps  from  the  young  themselves  loving 
each  other  and  playing  together.  Another  and  very 
different  gesture,  expressive  of  pleasure,  has  already 
been  described,  namely,  the  curious  manner  in  which 
young  and  even  old  cats,  when  pleased,  alternately  pro- 
trude their  fore-feet,  with  separated  toes,  as  if  pushing 
against  and  sucking  their  mother's  teats.  This  habit  is 
so  far  analogous  to  that  of  rubbing  against  something, 
that  both  apparently  are  derived  from  actions  performed 
during  the  nursing  period.  Why  cats  should  show 
affection  by  rubbing  so  much  more  than  do  dogs,  though 
the  latter  delight  in  contact  with  their  masters,  and 
why  cats  only  occasionally  lick  the  hands  of  their 


128 


SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS: 


CHAP.Y. 


friends,  whilst  dogs  always  do  so,  I  cannot  say.  Cats 
cleanse  themselves  by  licking  their  own  coats  more 
regularly  than  do  dogs.  On  the  other  hand,  their 
tongues  seem  less  well  fitted  for  the  work  than  the 
longer  and  more  flexible  tongues  of  dogs. 

Oats,    when    terrified,    stand    at    full    height,    and 


Fig.  15.    Cat  terrified  at  a  dog.    From  life,  by  Mr.  Wood. 

arch    their  backs    in    a    well-known    and   ridiculous 
fashion.     They  spit,  hiss,  or  growl.     The  hair  over  the 


CHAP.  V.  HORSES.  129 

whole  body,  and  especially  on  the  tail,  becomes  erect. 
In  the  instances  observed  by  me  the  basal  part  of  the 
tail  was  held  upright,  the  terminal  part  being  thrown 
on  one  side ;  but  sometimes  the  tail  (see  fig.  15)  is  only 
a  little  raised,  and  is  bent  almost  from  the  base  to  one 
side.  The  ears  are  drawn  back,  and  the  teeth  exposed. 
When  two  kittens  are  playing  together,  the  one  often 
thus  tries  to  frighten  the  other.  From  what  we  have 
seen  in  former  chapters,  all  the  above  points  of  expres- 
sion are  intelligible,  except  the  extreme  arching  of  the 
back.  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that,  in  the  same  manner 
as  many  birds,  whilst  they  ruffle  their  feathers,  spread 
out  their  wings  and  tail,  to  make  themselves  look  as 
big  as  possible,  so  cats  stand  upright  at  their  full  height, 
arch  their  backs,  often  raise  the  basal  part  of  the  tail,  and 
erect  their  hair,  for  the  same  purpose.  The  lynx,  when 
attacked,  is  said  to  arch  its  back,  and  is  thus  figured  by 
Brehm.  But  the  keepers  in  the  Zoological  Gardens 
have  never  seen  any  tendency  to  this  action  in  the  larger 
feline  animals,  such  as  tigers,  lions,  &c. ;  and  these  have 
little  cause  to  be  afraid  of  any  other  animal. 

Cats  use  their  voices  much  as  a  means  of  expression, 
and  they  utter,  under  various  emotions  and  desires,  at 
least  six  or  seven  different  sounds.  The  purr  of  satis- 
faction, which  is  made  during  both  inspiration  and  expi- 
ration, is  one  of  the  most  curious.  The  puma,  cheetah, 
and  ocelot  likewise  purr ;  but  the  tiger,  when  pleased, 
"  emits  a  peculiar  short  snuffle,  accompanied  by  the 
"  closure  of  the  eyelids."  7  It  is  said  that  the  lion, 
jaguar,  and  leopard,  do  not  purr. 

Horses. — Horses  when  savage  draw  their  ears  closely 


4  Land  and  Water,'  1867,  p.  657.    See  also  Azara  oil  the  Puma, 
in  the  work  above  quoted. 


130  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  CHAP. v. 

back,  protrude  their  heads,  and  partially  uncover  their 
incisor  teeth,  ready  for  biting.  When  inclined  to  kick 
behind,  they  generally,  through  habit,  draw  back  their 
ears ;  and  their  eyes  are  turned  backwards  in  a  pecu- 
liar manner. 8  When  pleased,  as  when  some  coveted 
food  is  brought  to  them  in  the  stable,  they  raise  and 
draw  in  their  heads,  prick  their  ears,  and  looking 
intently  towards  their  friend,  often  whinny.  Impa- 
tience is  expressed  by  pawing  the  ground. 

The  actions  of  a  horse  when  much  startled  are  highly 
expressive.  One  day  .my  horse  was  much  frightened 
at  a  drilling  machine,  covered  by  a  tarpaulin,  and 
lying  on  an  open  field.  He  raised  his  head  so  high, 
that  his  neck  became  almost  perpendicular;  and  this 
he  did  from  habit,  for  the  machine  lay  on  a  slope  below, 
and  could  not  have  been  seen  with  more  distinctness 
through  the  raising  of  the  head ;  nor  if  any  sound  had 
proceeded  from  it,  could  the  sound  have  been  more 
distinctly  heard.  His  eyes  and  ears  were  directed  in- 
tently forwards ;  and  I  could  feel  through  the  saddle 
the  palpitations  of  his  heart.  With  red  dilated  nostrils 
he  snorted  violently,  and  whirling  round,  would  have 
dashed  off  at  full  speed,  had  I  not  prevented  him. 
The  distension  of  the  nostrils  is  not  for  the  sake  of 
scenting  the  source  of  danger,  for  when  a  horse  smells 
carefully  at  any  object  and  is  not  alarmed,  he  does  not 
dilate  his  nostrils.  Owing  to  the  presence  of  a  valve 
in  the  throat,  a  horse  when  panting  does  not  breathe 
through  his  open  mouth,  but  through  his  nostrils ;  and 
these  consequently  have  become  endowed  with  great 
powers  of  expansion.  This  expansion  of  the  nostrils, 
as  well  as  the  snorting,  and  the  palpitations  of  the 

8  Sir  C.  Bell,  'Anatomy  of  Expression,'  3rd  edit.  p.  123.  See  also 
p.  126,  on  horses  not  breathing  through  their  mouths,  with  reference  to 
their  distended  nostrils. 


CHAP.  V.  RUMINANTS.  131 

heart,  are  actions  which  have  become  firmly  associated 
during  a  long  series  of  generations  with  the  emotion 
of  terror ;  for  terror  has  habitually  led  the  ho  se  to  the 
most  violent  exertion  in  dashing  away  at  full  speed 
from  the  cause  of  danger. 

Ruminants. — Cattle  and  sheep  are  remarkable  from 
displaying  in  so  slight  a  degree  their  emotions  or  sen- 
sations, excepting  that  of  extreme  pain.  A  bull  when 
enraged  exhibits  his  rage  only  by  the  manner  in  which 
he  holds  his  lowered  head,  with  distended  nostrils,  and 
by  bellowing.  He  also  often  paws  the  ground;  but 
this  pawing  seems  quite  different  from  that  of  an  im- 
patient horse,  for  when  the  soil  is  loose,  he  throws  up 
clouds  of  dust.  I  believe  that  bulls  act  in  this  manner 
when  irritated  by  flies,  for  the  sake  of  driving  them 
away.  The  wilder  breeds  of  sheep  and  the  chamois 
when  startled  stamp  on  the  ground,  and  whistle 
through  their  noses ;  and  this  serves  as  a  danger- 
signal  to  their  comrades.  The  musk-ox  of  the  Arctic 
regions,  when  encountered,  likewise  stamps  on  the 
ground.9  How  this  stamping  action  arose  I  cannot 
conjecture ;  for  from  inquiries  which  I  have  made  it, 
does  not  appear  that  any  of  these  animals  fight  with 
their  fore-legs. 

Some  species  of  deer,  when  savage,  display  far  more 
expression  than  do  cattle,  sheep,  or  goats,  for,  as  has 
already  been  stated,  they  draw  back  their  ears,  grind 
their  teeth,  erect  their  hair,  squeal,  stamp  on  the  ground, 
and  brandish  their  horns.  One  day  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  the  Formosan  deer  (Cervus  pseudaxis)  ap- 
proached me  in  a  curious  attitude,  with  his  muzzle 
raised  high  up,  so  that  the  horns  were  pressed  back 


•  «  Land  and  Water,'  1869,  p.  152. 


132  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS :  CHAP.  V. 

on  his  neck ;  the  head  being  held  rather  obliquely 
From  the  expression  of  his  eye  I  felt  sure  that  he 
was  savage;  he  approached  slowly,  and  as  soon  as  he 
came  close  to  the  iron  bars,  he  did  not  lower  his  head 
to  butt  at  me,  but  suddenly  bent  it  inwards,  and  struck 
his  horns  with  great  force  against  the  railings.  Mr. 
Bartlett  informs  me  that  some  other  species  of  deer 
place  themselves  in  the  same  attitude  when  enraged. 

Monkeys. — The  various  species  and  genera  of  monkeys 
express  their  feelings  in  many  different  ways ;  and  this 
fact  is  interesting,  as  in  some  degree  bearing  on  the 
question,  whether  the  so-called  races  of  man  should  be 
ranked  as  distinct  species  or  varieties;  for,  as  we 
shall  see  in  the  following  chapters,  the  different  races 
of  man  express  their  emotions  and  sensations  with 
remarkable  uniformity  throughout  the  world.  Some  of 
the  expressive  actions  of  monkeys  are  interesting  in 
another  way,  namely  from  being  closely  analogous  to 
those  of  man.  As  I  have  had  no  opportunity  of 
observing  any  one  species  of  the  group  under  all  cir- 
cumstances, my  miscellaneous  remarks  will  be  best 
arranged  under  different  states  of  the  mind. 

Pleasure,  joy,  affection. — It  is  not  possible  to  distin- 
guish in  monkeys,  at  least  without  more  experience 
than  I  have  had,  the  expression  of  pleasure  or  joy  from 
that  of  affection.  Young  chimpanzees  make  a  kind  of 
barking  noise,  when  pleased  by  the  return  of  any  one 
to  whom  they  are  attached.  When  this  noise,  which 
the  keepers  call  a  laugh,  is  uttered,  the  lips  are  pro- 
truded ;  but  so  they  are  under  various  other  emotions. 
Nevertheless  I  could  perceive  that  when  they  were 
pleased  the  form  of  the  lips  differed  a  little  from  that 
assumed  when  they  were  angered.  If  a  young  chim- 
panzee be  tickled — and  the  armpits  are  particularly 


CHAP.  V.  MONKEYS.  133 

sensitive  to  tickling,  as  in  the  case  of  our  children, — a 
more  decided  chuckling  or  laughing  sound  is  uttered ; 
though  the  laughter  is  sometimes  noiseless.  The 
corners  of  the  mouth  are  then  drawn  backwards ;  and 
this  sometimes  causes  the  lower  eyelids  to  be  slightly 
wrinkled.  But  this  wrinkling,  which  is  so  character- 
istic of  our  own  laughter,  is  more  plainly  seen  in  some 
other  monkeys.  The  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  in  the 
chimpanzee  are  not  exposed  when  they  utter  their 
laughing  noise,  in  which  respect  they  differ  from  us. 
But  their  eyes  sparkle  and  grow  brighter,  as  Mr.  W.  L. 
Martin,10  who  has  particularly  attended  to  their  ex- 
pression, states. 

Young  Orangs,  when  tickled,  likewise  grin  and  make 
a  chuckling  sound ;  and  Mr.  Martin  says  that  their  eyes 
grow  brighter.  As  soon  as  their  laughter  ceases,  an 
expression  may  be  detected  passing  over  their  faces, 
which,  as  Mr.  Wallace  remarked  to  me,  may  be  called 
a  smile.  I  have  also  noticed  something  of  the  same 
kind  with  the  chimpanzee.  Dr.  Duchenne — and  I  cannot 
quote  a  better  authority — informs  me  that  he  kept  a 
very  tame  monkey  in  his  house  for  a  year ;  and  when 
he  gave  it  during  meal-times  some  choice  delicacy,  he 
observed  that  the  corners  of  its  mouth  were  slightly 
raised;  thus  an  expression  of  satisfaction,  partaking  of 
the  nature  of  an  incipient  smile,  and  resembling  that 
often  seen  on  the  face  of  man,  could  be  plainly  per- 
ceived in  this  animal. 

The  Cebus  azaree,11  when  rejoiced  at  again  seeing  a 
beloved  person,  utters  a  peculiar  tittering  (kichernden) 
sound.  It  also  expresses  agreeable  sensations,  by 


10  <  Natural  History  of  Mammalia,'  1841,  vol.  i.  pp.  383,  410. 

11  Kengger  ('Saugethiere  von  Paraguay,'  1830,  s.  46)  kept  these 
monkeys  in  confinement  for  seven  years  in  their  native  country  of 
Paraguay. 


134  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  CHAT.  V. 

drawing  back  the  corners  of  its  mouth,  without  pro- 
ducing any  sound.  Rengger  calls  this  movement 
laughter,  but  it  would  be  more  appropriately  called  a 
smile.  The  form  of  the  mouth  is  different  when 
either  pain  or  terror  is  expressed,  and  high  shrieks  are 
uttered.  Another  species  of  Cebus  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens  (G.  hypoleucus),  when  pleased,  makes  a  reite- 
rated shrill  note,  and  likewise  draws  back  the  corners 
of  its  mouth,  apparently  through  the  contraction  of  the 
same  muscles  as  with  us.  So  does  the  Barbary  ape 
(Inuus  ecaudatus)  to  an  extraordinary  degree;  and  I 
observed  in  this  monkey  that  the  skin  of  the  lower 
eyelids  then  became  much  wrinkled.  At  the  same  time 
it  rapidly  moved  its  lower  jaw  or  lips  in  a  spasmodic 
manner,  the  teeth  being  exposed;  but  the  noise  pro- 
duced was  hardly  more  distinct  than  that  which  we 
sometimes  call  silent  laughter.  Two  of  the  keepers 
affirmed  that  this  slight  sound  was  the  animal's 
laughter,  and  when  I  expressed  some  doubt  on  this  head 
(being  at  the  time  quite  inexperienced),  they  made  it 
attack  or  rather  threaten  a  hated  Entellus  monkey, 
living  in  the  same  compartment.  Instantly  the  whole 
expression  of  the  face  of  the  Inuus  changed ;  the  mouth 
was  opened  much  more  widely,  the  canine  teeth  were 
more  fully  exposed,  and  a  hoarse  barking  noise  was 
uttered. 

The  Anubis  baboon  (Cynocephalus  anulis)  was  first 
insulted  and  put  into  a  furious  rage,  as  was  easily 
done,  by  his  keeper,  who  then  made  friends  with  him 
and  shook  hands.  As  the  reconciliation  was  effected 
the  baboon  rapidly  moved  up  and  down  his  jaws  and 
lips,  and  looked  pleased.  When  we  laugh  heartily,  a 
similar  movement,  or  quiver,  may  be  observed  more  or 
less  distinctly  in  our  jaws ;  but  with  man  the  muscles 
of  the  chest  are  more  particularly  acted  on,  whilst  with 


CHAP.  V.  MONKEYS.  135 

this  baboon,  and  with  some  other  monkeys,  it  is  the 
muscles  of  the  jaws  and  lips  which  are  spasmodically 
affected. 

I  have  already  had  occasion  to  remark  on  the  curious 
manner  in  which  two  or  three  species  of  Macacus  and 
the  Cynopithecus  niger  draw  back  their  ears  and  utter  a 
slight  jabbering  noise,  when  they  are  pleased  by  being 
caressed.  With  the  Cynopithecus  (fig.  17),  the  corners 
of  the  mouth  are  at  the  same  time  drawn  backwards 
and  upwards,  so  that  the  teeth  are  exposed.  Hence 
this  expression  would  never  be  recognised  by  a  stranger 
as  one  of  pleasure.  The  crest  of  long  hairs  on  the 
forehead  is  depressed,  and  apparently  the  whole  skin 
of  the  head  drawn  backwards.  The  eyebrows  are  thus 
raised  a  little,  and  the  eyes  assume  a  staring  appear- 
ance. The  lower  eyelids  also  become  slightly  wrinkled ; 
bat  this  wrinkling  is  not  conspicuous,  owing  to  the 
permanent  transverse  furrows  on  the  face. 

Painful  emotions  and  sensations. — With  monkeys 
the  expression  of  slight  pain,  or  of  any  painful  emotion, 
such  as  grief,  vexation,  jealousy,  &c.,  is  not  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  that  of  moderate  anger ;  and  these 
states  of  mind  readily  and  quickly  pass  into  each  other. 
Grief,  however,  with  some  species  is  certainly  exhibited 
by  weeping.  A  woman,  who  sold  a  monkey  to  the 
Zoological  Society,  believed  to  have  come  from  Borneo 
(Macacus  maurus  or  M.  inornatus  of  Gray),  said  that 
it  often  cried  ;  and  Mr.  Bartlett,  as  well  as  the  keeper 
Mr.  Button,  have  repeatedly  seen  it,  when  grieved,  or 
even  when  much  pitied,  weeping  so  copiously  that  the 
tears  rolled  down  its  cheeks.  There  is,  however,  some- 
thing strange  about  this  case,  for  two  specimens  subse- 
quently kept  in  the  Gardens,  and  believed  to  be  the 
same  species,  have  never  been  seen  to  weep,  though 
they  were  carefully  observed  by  the  keeper  and  myself 


136 


SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  CHAP.  V 


Kg.  ]  6.    Cynopithecus  niger,  in  a  placid  condition.     Drawn  from  life  oy  Mr.  Woli 


Fig.  17     The  same,  when  pleased  by  being  caressed. 


CHAP.  V.  MONKEYS.  137 

when  much  distressed  and  loudly  screaming.  Kengger 
states12  that  the  eyes  of  the  Cebus  azarse  fill  with 
tears,  but  not  sufficiently  to  overflow,  when  it  is  pre- 
vented getting  some  much  desired  object,  or  is  much 
frightened.  Humboldt  also  asserts  that  the  eyes  of  the 
Callitlirix  sciureus  "  instantly  fill  with  tears  when  it  is 
"  seized  with  fear ; "  but  when  this  pretty  little  monkey 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens  was  teased,  so  as  to  cry  out 
loudly,  this  did  not  occur.  I  do  not,  however,  wish  to 
throw  the  least  doubt  on  the  accuracy  of  Humboldt's 
statement. 

The  appearance  of  dejection  in  young  orangs  and 
chimpanzees,  when  out  of  health,  is  as  plain  and  almost 
as  pathetic  as  in  the  case  of  our  children.  This 
state  of  mind  and  body  is  shown  by  their  listless 
movements,  fallen  countenances,  dull  eyes,  and  changed 
complexion. 

Anger. — This  emotion  is  often  exhibited  by  many  kinds 
of  monkeys,  and  is  expressed,  as  Mr.  Martin  remarks,13  in 
many  different  ways.  "  Some  species,  when  irritated,  pout 
"  the  lips,  gaze  with  a  fixed  and  savage  glare  on  their  foe, 
"  and  make  repeated  short  starts  as  if  about  to  spring 
"  forward,  uttering  at  the  same  time  inward  guttural 
"  sounds.  Many  display  their  anger  by  suddenly  ad- 
"  vancing,  making  abrupt  starts,  at  the  same  time 
"  opening  the  mouth  and  pursing  up  the  lips,  so  as  to 
"  conceal  the  teeth,  while  the  eyes  are  daringly  fixed 
"  on  the  enemy,  as  if  in  savage  defiance.  Some  again, 
"  and  principally  the  long-tailed  monkeys,  or  Guenons, 
"  display  their  teeth,  and  accompany  their  malicious 
"  grins  with  a  sharp,  abrupt,  reiterated  cry."  Mr. 
Stitton  confirms  the  statement  that  some  species  un- 

12  Kengger,  ibid.  s.    46.     Humboldt,  « Personal  Narrative,'  Eng. 
translat.  vol.  iv.  p.  527. 

13  Nat.  Hist,  of  Mammalia,  ISO,  p.  351. 

7 


138  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  CHAP. v. 

cover  their  teeth  when  enraged,  whilst  others  conceal 
them  by  the  protrusion  of  their  lips;  and  some  kinds 
draw  back  their  ears.  The  Cynopitliecus  niger,  lately 
referred  to,  acts  in  this  manner,  at  the  same  time  de- 
pressing the  crest  of  hair  on  its  forehead,  and  showing 
its  teeth ;  so  that  the  movements  of  the  features  from 
anger  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  from  pleasure; 
and  the  two  expressions  can  be  distinguished  only  by 
those  familiar  with  the  animal. 

Baboons  often  show  their  passion  and  threaten  their 
enemies  in  a  very  odd  manner,  namely,  by  opening 
their  mouths  widely  as  in  the  act  of  yawning.  Mr. 
Bartlett  has  often  seen  two  baboons,  when  first  placed 
in  the  same  compartment,  sitting  opposite  to  each 
other  and  thus  alternately  opening  their  mouths ;  and 
this  action  seems  frequently  to  end  in  a  real  yawn. 
Mr.  Bartlett  believes  that  both  animals  wish  to  show 
to  each  other  that  they  are  provided  with  a  formidable 
set  of  teeth,  as  is  undoubtedly  the  case.  As  I  could 
hardly  credit  the  reality  of  this  yawning  gesture, 
Mr.  Bartlett  insulted  an  old  baboon  and  put  him 
into  a  violent  passion ;  and  he  almost  immediately 
thus  acted.  Some  species  of  Macacus  and  of  Cer- 
copithecus  u  behave  in  the  same  manner.  Baboons 
likewise  show  their  anger,  as  was  observed  by  Brehm 
with  those  which  he  kept  alive  in  Abyssinia,  in  another 
manner,  namely,  by  striking  the  ground  with  one 
hand,  "like  an  angry  man  striking  the  table  with 
"  his  fist."  I  have  seen  this  movement  with  the  baboons 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens ;  but  sometimes  the  action 
seems  rather  to  represent  the  searching  for  a  stone  or 
other  object  in  their  beds  of  straw. 


14  Brelim, '  Thierleben,'  B.  i.  s.  84.   On  baboons  striking  the  ground, 
s.61. 


CHAP.  V.  MONKEYS.  139 

Mr.  Sutton  has  often  observed  the  face  of  the 
Macacus  rhesus,  when  much  enraged,  growing  red.  As 
he  was  mentioning  this  to  me,  another  monkey  attacked 
a  rhesus,  and  I  saw  its  face  redden  as  plainly  as  that  of 
a  man  in  a  violent  passion.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
minutes,  after  the  battle,  the  face  of  this  monkey 
recovered  its  natural  tint.  At  the  same  time  that  the 
face  reddened,  the  naked  posterior  part  of  the  body, 
which  is  always  red,  seemed  to  grow  still  redder;  but  I 
cannot  positively  assert  that  this  was  the  case.  When 
the  Mandrill  is  in  any  way  excited,  the  brilliantly 
coloured,  naked  parts  of  the  skin  are  said  to  become 
still  more  vividly  coloured. 

With  several  species  of  baboons  the  ridge  of  the  fore- 
head projects  much  over  the  eyes,  and  is  studded  with 
a  few  long  hairs,  representing  our  eyebrows.  These 
animals  are  always  looking  about  them,  and  in  order  to 
look  upwards  they  raise  their  eyebrows.  They  have 
thus,  as  it  would  appear,  acquired  the  habit  of  fre- 
quently moving  their  eyebrows.  However  this  may  be, 
many  kinds  of  monkeys,  especially  the  baboons,  when 
angered  or  in  any  way  excited,  rapidly  and  incessantly 
move  their  eyebrows  up  and  down,  as  well  as  the  hairy 
skin  of  their  foreheads.15  As  we  associate  in  the  case 
of  man  the  raising  and  lowering  of  the  eyebrows  with 
definite  states  of  the  mind,  the  almost  incessant  move- 
ment of  the  eyebrows  by  monkeys  gives  them  a  senseless 
expression.  I  once  observed  a  man  who  had  a  trick  of 
continually  raising  his  eyebrows  without  any  corre- 
sponding emotion,  and  this  gave  to  him  a  foolish 
appearance ;  so  it  is  with  some  persons  who  keep  the 
corners  of  their  mouths  a  little  drawn  backwards  and 


15  Brehm  remarks  (4  Thierleben,'  s  68)  that  the  eyebrows  of  the 
Inuus  ecaudatus  are  frequently  moved  up  and  down  when  the  animal 
IB  angered. 


140  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS :  CHAP.  V. 

upwards,  as  if  by  an  incipient  smile,  though  at  the 
time  they  are  not  amused  or  pleased. 

A  young  orang,  made  jealous  by  her  keeper  attending 
to  another  monkey,  slightly  uncovered  her  teeth,  and, 
uttering  a  peevish  noise  like  tish-shist,  turned  her 
back  on  him.  Both  orangs  and  chimpanzees,  when 
a  little  more  angered,  protrude  their  lips  greatly,  and 
make  a  harsh  barking  noise.  A  young  female  chim- 
panzee, in  a  violent  passion,  presented  a  curious  resem- 
blance to  a  child  in  the  same  state.  She  screamed 
loudly  with  widely  open  mouth,  the  lips  being  retracted 
so  that  the  teeth  were  fully  exposed.  She  threw  her 
arms  wildly  about,  sometimes  clasping  them  over  her 
head.  She  rolled  on  the  ground,  sometimes  on  her 
back,  sometimes  on  her  belly,  and  bit  everything  within 
reach.  A  young  gibbon  (Hylobates  syndactylus)  in  a 
passion  has  been  described16  as  behaving  in  almost 
exactly  the  same  manner. 

The  lips  of  young  orangs  and  chimpanzees  are  pro- 
truded, sometimes  to  a  wonderful  degree,  under  various 
circumstances.  They  act  thus,  not  only  when  slightly 
angered,  sulky,  or  disappointed,  but  when  alarmed  at 
anything — in  one  instance,  at  the  sight  of  a  turtle,17 — 
and  likewise  when  pleased.  But  neither  the  degree 
of  protrusion  nor  the  shape  of  the  mouth  is  exactly 
the  same,  as  I  believe,  in  all  cases;  and  the  sounds 
which  are  then  uttered  are  diiferent.  The  accom- 
panying drawing  represents  a  chimpanzee  made  sulky 
by  an  orange  having  been  offered  him,  and  then  taken 
away.  A  similar  protrusion  or  pouting  of  the  lips, 
though  to  a  much  slighter  degree,  may  be  seen  in 
sulky  children. 

16  G.  Bennett,  '  Wanda-ings  in  New  South  Wales,'  &c.  vol.  ii.  1834 
p.  153. 

»7  W.  C.  Ma;  tin,  Nat.  Hist,  of  Mamm.  Animals,  1841,  p,  405. 


CHAP.  V. 


MONKEYS. 


141 


Fig  18.    Chimpanzee  disappointed  and  sulky.     Drawn  from  life  by  Mr.  Wood. 


142  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS :  CHAP.  V. 

Many  years  ago,  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  I  placed 
a  looking-glass  on  the  floor  before  two  young  orangs, 
who,  as  far  as  it  was  known,  had  never  before  seen  one. 
At  first  they  gazed  at  their  own  images  with  the  most 
steady  surprise,  and  often  changed  their  point  of  view. 
They  then  approached  close  and  protruded  their  lips 
towards  the  image,  as  if  to  kiss  it,  in  exactlv  the  same 
manner  as  they  had  previously  done  towards  each  other, 
when  first  placed,  a  few  days  before,  in  the  same  room. 
They  next  made  all  sorts  of  grimaces,  and  put  them- 
selves in  various  attitudes  before  the  mirror;  they 
pressed  and  rubbed  the  surface;  they  placed  their 
hands  at  different  distances  behind  it;  looked  behind 
it ;  and  finally  seemed  almost  frightened,  started  a 
little,  became  cross,  and  refused  to  look  any  longer. 

When  we  try  to  perform  some  little  action  which  is 
difficult  and  requires  precision,  for  instance,  to  thread 
a  needle,  we  generally  close  our  lips  firmly,  for  the 
sake,  I  presume,  of  not  disturbing  our  movements  by 
breathing ;  and  I  noticed  the  same  action  in  a  young 
Orang.  The  poor  little  creature  was  sick,  and  was 
amusing  itself  by  trying  to  kill  the  flies  on  the  window- 
panes  with  its  knuckles ;  this  was  difficult  as  the  flies 
buzzed  about,  and  at  each  attempt  the  lips  were  firmly 
compressed,  and  at  the  same  time  slightly  protruded. 

Although  the  countenances,  and  more  especially  the 
gestures,  of  orangs  and  chimpanzees  are  in  some  re- 
spects highly  expressive,  I  doubt  whether  on  the  whole 
they  are  so  expressive  as  those  of  some  other  kinds  of 
monkeys.  This  may  be  attributed  in  part  to  their  ears 
being  immoveable,  and  in  part  to  the  nakedness  of 
their  eyebrows,  of  which  the  movements  are  thus  ren- 
dered less  conspicuous.  When,  however,  they  raise  their 
eyebrows  their  foreheads  become,  as  with  us,  transversely 
wrinkled.  In  comparison  with  man,  their  faces  are 


OIIAP.  V.  MONKEYS.  143 

inexpressive,  chiefly  owing  to  their  not  frowning  under 
any  emotion  of  the  mind — that  is,  as  far  as  I  have  been 
able  to  observe,  and  I  carefully  attended  to  this  point. 
Frowning,  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  the 
expressions  in  man,  is  due  to  the  contraction  of  the 
corrugators  by  which  the  eyebrows  are  lowered  and 
brought  together,  so  that  vertical  furrows  are  formed 
on  the  forehead.  Both  the  orang  and  chimpan- 
zee are  said18  to  possess  this  muscle,  but  it  seems 
rarely  brought  into  action,  at  least  in  a  conspicuous 
manner.  I  made  my  hands  into  a  sort  of  cage,  and 
placing  some  tempting  fruit  within,  allowed  both  a 
young  orang  and  chimpanzee  to  try  their  utmost  to 
get  it  out;  but  although  they  grew  rather  cross,  they 
showed  not  a  trace  of  a  frown.  Nor  was  there  any 
frown  when  they  were  enraged.  Twice  I  took  two 
chimpanzees  from  their  rather  dark  room  suddenly  into 
bright  sunshine,  which  would  certainly  have  caused  us 
to  frown;  they  blinked  and  winked  their  eyes,  but 
only  once  did  I  see  a  very  slight  frown.  On  another 
occasion,  I  tickled  the  nose  of  a  chimpanzee  with  a 
straw,  and  as  it  crumpled  up  its  face,  slight  vertical 
furrows  appeared  between  the  eyebrows.  I  have  never 
seen  a  frown  on  the  forehead  of  the  orang. 

The  gorilla,  when  enraged,  is  described  as  erecting 
its  crest  of  hair,  throwing  down  its  under  lip,  dilating 
its  nostrils,  and  uttering  terrific  yells.  Messrs.  Savage 
and  Wyman ld  state  that  the  scalp  can  be  freely  -moved 
backwards  and  forwards,  and  that  when  the  animal  is 
excited  it  is  strongly  contracted;  but  T  presume  that 

18  Prof.   Owen  on  the  Orang,  Proc.  Zool.   Soc.   1830,  p.  28.    Oil 
the  Chimpanzee,  see  Prof.  Macalister,  in  Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat. 
Hist.  vol.  vii.  1871,  p.  342,  who  states  that  the  corrugator  supercilii 
is  inseparable  from  the  orbicularis  palpebrarum. 

19  Boston  Journal  of  Nat.  Hist.  1845-47,  vol.  v.  p.  423.     On  the 
Chimpanzee,  ibid.  1843-44,  vol.  iv.  p.  305. 


144  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  CHAP  v. 

they  mean  by  this  latter  expression  that  the  scalp  is 
lowered;  for  they  likewise  speak  of  the  young  chim- 
panzee, when  crying  out,  "  as  having  the  eyebrows 
"  strongly  contracted."  The  great  power  of  movement 
in  the  scalp  of  the  gorilla,  of  many  baboons  and  other 
monkeys,  deserves  notice  in  relation  to  the  power 
possessed  by  some  few  men,  either  through  reversion 
or  persistence,  of  voluntarily  moving  their  scalps.20 

Astonishment,  Terror. — A  living  fresh- water  turtle 
was  placed  at  my  request  in  the  same  compartment  in 
the  Zoological  Gardens  with  many  monkeys ;  and  they 
showed  unbounded  astonishment,  as  well  as  some  fear. 
This  was  displayed  by  their  remaining  motionless, 
staring  intently  with  widely  opened  eyes,  their  eye- 
brows being  often  moved  up  and  down.  Their  faces 
seemed  somewhat  lengthened.  They  occasionally  raised 
themselves  on  their  hind-legs  to  get  a  better  view. 
They  often  retreated  a  few  feet,  and  then  turning  their 
heads  over  one  shoulder,  again  stared  intently.  It  was 
curious  to  observe  how  much  less  afraid  they  were  of 
the  turtle  than  of  a  living  snake  which  I  had  formerly 
placed  in  their  compartment ; 21  for  in  the  course  of  a 
few  minutes  some  of  the  monkeys  ventured  to  approach 
and  touch  the  turtle.  On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the 
larger  baboons  were  greatly  terrified,  and  grinned  as  if 
on  the  point  of  screaming  out.  When  I  showed  a  little 
dressed-up  doll  to  the  Cynopifhecus  niger,  it  stood  mo- 
tionless, stared  intently  with  widely  opened  eyes,  and 
advanced  its  ears  a  little  forwards.  But  when  the 
turtle  was  placed  in  its  compartment,  this  monkey  also 
moved  its  lips  in  an  odd,  rapid,  jabbering  manner, 
which  the  keeper  declared  was  meant  to  conciliate  or 
please  the  turtle. 

20  See  on  this  subject, '  Descent  of  Man,'  vol.  i.  p.  20. 

21  '  Descent  of  Man,'  vol.  i.  p.  43. 


CHAP.  V.  MONKEYS.  145 

I  was  never  able  clearly  to  perceive  that  the  eye- 
brows of  astonished  monkeys  were  kept  permanently 
raised,  though  they  were  frequently  moved  up  and 
down.  Attention,  which  precedes  astonishment,  is 
expressed  by  man  by  a  slight  raising  of  the  eyebrows ; 
and  Dr.  Duchenne  informs  me  that  when  he  gave  to 
the  monkey  formerly  mentioned  some  quite  new  article 
of  food,  it  elevated  its  eyebrows  a  little,  thus  assuming 
an  appearance  of  close  attention.  It  then  took  the 
food  in  its  fingers,  and,  with  lowered  or  rectilinear  eye- 
brows, scratched,  smelt,  and  examined  it, — an  expression 
of  reflection  being  thus  exhibited.  Sometimes  it  would 
throw  back  its  head  a  little,  and  again  with  suddenly 
raised  eyebrows  re-examine  and  finally  taste  the  food. 

In  no  case  did  any  monkey  keep  its  mouth  open 
when  it  was  astonished.  Mr.  Sutton  observed  for 
me  a  young  orang  and  chimpanzee  during  a  consider- 
able length  of  time ;  and  however  much  they  were 
astonished,  or  whilst  listening  intently  to  some  strange 
sound,  they  did  not  keep  their  mouths  open.  This  fact 
is  surprising,  as  with  mankind  hardly  any  expression  is 
more  general  than  a  widely  open  mouth  under  the 
sense  of  astonishment.  As  far  as  I  have  been  able  to 
observe,  monkeys  breathe  more  freely  through  their 
nostrils  than  men  do ;  and  this  may  account  for  their  not 
opening  their  mouths  when  tney  are  astonished;  for, 
as  we  shall  see  in  a  future  chapter,  man  apparently  acts 
in  this  manner  when  startled,  at  first  for  the  sake  of 
quickly  drawing  a  full  inspiration,  and  afterwards  for 
the  sake  of  breathing  as  quietly  as  possible. 

Terror  is  expressed  by  many  kinds  of  monkeys  by 
the  utterance  of  shrill  screams ;  the  lips  being  drawn 
back,  so  that  the  teeth  are  exposed.  The  hair  becomes 
erect,  especially  when  some  anger  is  likewise  felt.  Mr. 
Sutton  has  distinctly  seen  the  face  of  the  Macacw 


140  SPECIAL  EXPKESSIONS:   MONKEYS.         CHAP.  V. 

rhesus  grow  pale  from  fear.  Monkeys  also  tremble 
from  fear;  and  sometimes  they  void  their  excretions. 
I  have  seen  one  which,  when  caught,  almost  fainted 
from  an  excess  of  terror. 

Sufficient  facts  have  now  been  given  with  respect  to 
the  expressions  of  various  animals.  It  is  impossible 
to  agree  with  Sir  C.  Bell  when  he  says22  that  "the 
"  faces  of  animals  seem  chiefly  capable  of  expressing 
"  rage  and  fear ;"  and  again,  when  he  says  that  all  their 
expressions  "  may  be  referred,  more  or  less  plainly,  to 
"  their  acts  of  volition  or  necessary  instincts."  He 
who  will  look  at  a  dog  preparing  to  attack  another 
dog  or  a  man,  and  at  the  same  animal  when  caressing 
his  master,  or  will  watch  the  countenance  of  a  monkey 
when  insulted,  and  when  fondled  by  his  keeper,  will  be 
forced  to  admit  that  the  movements  of  their  features 
and  their  gestures  are  almost  as  expressive  as  those 
of  man.  Although  no  explanation  can  be  given  of 
some  of  the  expressions  in  the  lower  animals,  the 
greater  number  are  explicable  in  accordance  with  the 
three  principles  given  at  the  commencement  of  the 
first  chapter. 


82  •  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  3rd  edit.  1844,  pp.  138, 121. 


CHAP.  VI.      EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFEHINQ :  WEEPING.        147 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS  OF  MAN:  SUFFERING  AND  WEEPING. 

The  screaming  and  weeping  of  infants  —  Form  of  features  —  Age  at 
which  weeping  commences  —  The  effects  of  habitual  restraint  on 
weeping  —  Sobbing  —  Cause  of  the  contraction  of  the  muscles 
round  the  eyes  during  screaming  —  Cause  of  the  secretion  of 
tears. 

IN  this  and  the  following  chapters  the  expressions  ex- 
hibited by  Man  under  various  states  of  the  mind  will 
be  described  and  explained,  as  far  as  lies  in  my  power. 
My  observations  will  be  arranged  according  to  the 
order  which  I  have  found  the  most  convenient ;  and 
this  will  generally  lead  to  opposite  emotions  and  sen- 
sations succeeding  each  other. 

Suffering  of  the  body  and  mind :  weeping. — I  have 
already  described  in  sufficient  detail,  in  the  third 
chapter,  the  signs  of  extreme  pain,  as  shown  by  screams 
or  groans,  with  the  writhing  of  the  whole  body  and 
the  teeth  clenched  or  ground  together.  These  signs 
are  often  accompanied  or  followed  by  profuse  sweating, 
pallor,  trembling,  utter  prostration,  or  faintness.  No 
suffering  is  greater  than  that  from  extreme  fear  or 
horror,  but  here  a  distinct  emotion  comes  into  play, 
and  will  be  elsewhere  considered.  Prolonged  suffering, 
especially  of  the  mind,  passes  into  low  spirits,  grief, 
dejection,  and  despair,  and  these  states  will  be  the 
subject  of  the  following  chapter.  Here  I  shall  almost 
confine  myself  to  weeping  or  crying,  more  especially  in 
children. 

Infants,  when  suffering  even  slight  pain,  moderate 


148  EXPRESSION   OF  SUFFERING:  CHAP.  VI. 

hunger,  or  discomfort,  utter  violent  and  prolonged 
screams.  Whilst  thus  screaming  their  eyes  are  firmly 
closed,  so  that  the  skin  round  them  is  wrinkled,  and 
the  forehead  contracted  into  a  frown.  The  mouth 
is  widely  opened  with  the  lips  retracted  in  a  peculiar 
manner,  which  causes  it  to  assume  a  squarish  form; 
the  gums  or  teeth  being  more  or  less  exposed.  The 
breath  is  inhaled  almost  spasmodically.  It  is  easy  to 
observe  infants  whilst  screaming ;  but  I  have  found 
photographs  made  by  the  instantaneous  process  the  best 
means  for  observation,  as  allowing  more  deliberation. 
I  have  collected  twelve,  most  of  them  made  purposely 
for  me;  and  they  all  exhibit  the  same  general  cha- 
racteristics. I  have,  therefore,  had  six  of  them  l  (Plate 
I.)  reproduced  by  the  heliotype  process. 

Tbe  firm  closing  of  the  eyelids  and  consequent  com- 
pression of  the  eyeball, — and  this  is  a  most  important 
element  in  various  expressions, — serves  to  protect  the 
eyes  from  becoming  too  much  gorged  with  blood,  as 
will  presently  be  explained  in  detail.  With  respect  to 
the  order  in  which  the  several  muscles  contract  in 
firmly  compressing  the  eyes,  I  am  indebted  to  Dr 
Langstaff,  of  Southampton,  for  some  observations, 
which  I  have  since  repeated.  The  best  plan  for 
observing  the  order  is  to  make  a  person  first  raise  his 
eyebrows,  and  this  produces  transverse  wrinkles  across 
the  forehead ;  and  then  very  gradually  to  contract  all 
the  muscles  round  the  eyes  with  as  much  force  as 
possible.  The  reader  who  is  unacquainted  with  the 
anatomy  of  the  face,  ought  to  refer  to  p.  24,  and 
look  at  the  woodcuts  1  to  3.  The  corrugators  of  the  brow 


1  The  best  photographs  in  my  collection  are  by  Mr.  Rej  lander,  of 
Victoria  Street,  London,  and  by  Herr  Kindermann,  of  Hamburg. 
Figs.  1,  3,  4,  and  6  are  by  the  former ;  and  figs.  2  and  5,  by  the  latter 
gentleman.  Fig.  6  is  given  to  show  moderate  crying  in  an  older  child. 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  149 

(comigator  supercilii)  seem  to  be  the  first  muscles  to 
contract ;  and  these  draw  the  eyebrows  downwards  and 
inwards  towards  the  base  of  the  nose,  causing  vertical 
furrows,  that  is  a  frown,  to  appear  between  the  eye- 
brows ;  at  the  same  time  they  cause  the  disappearance 
of  the  transverse  wrinkles  across  the  forehead.  The 
orbicular  muscles  contract  almost  simultaneously  with 
the  corrugators,  and  produce  wrinkles  all  round  the 
eyes ;  they  appear,  however,  to  be  enabled  to  contract 
with  greater  force,  as  soon  as  the  contraction  of  the 
corrugators  has  given  them  some  support.  Lastly, 
the  pyramidal  muscles  of  the  nose  contract ;  and  these 
draw  the  eyebrows  and  the  skin  of  the  forehead  still 
lower  down,  producing  short  transverse  wrinkles  across 
the  base  of  the  nose.2  For  the  sake  of  brevity  these 
muscles  will  generally  be  spoken  of  as  the  orbiculars, 
or  as  those  surrounding  the  eyes. 

When  these  muscles  are  strongly  contracted,  those 
running  to  the  upper  lip 3  likewise  contract  and  raise 
the  upper  lip.  This  might  have  been  expected  from 
the  manner  in  which  at  least  one  of  them,  the  malaris, 
is  connected  with  the  orbiculars.  Any  one  who  will 
gradually  contract  the  muscles  round  his  eyes,  will  feel, 
as  he  increases  the  force,  that  his  upper  lip  and  the 


2  Henle  (Handbuch  d.  Syst.  Anat.  1858,  B.  i.  s.  139)  agrees  with 
Duchenne  that  this  is  the  effect  of  the  contraction  of  the  pyramidalis 
nasi. 

3  These  consist  of  the  levator  labii  superiorif  alxque  nasi,  the  levator 
labii  proprius,  the  malaris,  and  the  zygomaticus  minor,  or  little  zygo- 
matic.     This  latter  muscle  runs   parallel   to   and  above   the  great 
zygoraatic,  and  is  attached  to  the  outer  part  of  the  upper  lip.     It  is 
represented  in  fig.  2  (I.  p.  24),  but  not  in  figs.  1  and  3.     Dr.  Duchenne 
first  showed  ('  Me'canisme  de  la  Physionomie  Humaine,'  Album,  18G2, 
p.  39)  the  importance  of  the  contraction  of  this  muscle  in  the  shape 
assumed  by  the  features  in  crying.    Henle  considers  the  above-named 
muscles  (excepting  the  malaris)  as  subdivisions  of  the  quadratus  labii 
superioris. 


150  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING :  CHAP.  VI. 

wings  of  his  nose  (which  are  partly  acted  on  by  one  of 
the  same  muscles)  are  almost  always  a  little  drawn  up. 
If  he  keeps  his  mouth  firmly  shut  whilst  contracting 
the  muscles  round  the  eyes,  and  then  suddenly  relaxes 
his  lips,  he  will  feel  that  the  pressure  on  his  eyes  imme- 
diately increases.  So  again  when  a  person  on  a  bright, 
glaring  day  wishes  to  look  at  a  distant  object,  but  is 
compelled  partially  to  close  his  eyelids,  the  upper  lip 
may  almost  always  be  observed  to  be  somewhat  raised. 
The  mouths  of  some  very  short-sighted  persons,  who 
are  forced  habitually  to  reduce  the  aperture  of  their 
eyes,  wear  from  this  same  reason  a  grinning  expression. 
The  raising  of  the  upper  lip  draws  upwards  the  flesh 
of  the  upper  parts  of  the  cheeks,  and  produces  a 
strongly  marked  fold  on  each  cheek, — the  naso-labial 
fold, — which  runs  from  near  the  wings  of  the  nostrils 
to  the  corners  of  the  mouth  and  below  them.  This  fold 
or  furrow  may  be  seen  in  all  the  photographs,  and  is 
very  characteristic  of  the  expression  of  a  crying  child ; 
though  a  nearly  similar  fold  is  produced  in  the  act  of 
laughing  or  smiling.4 


4  Although  Dr.  Duchenne  has  so  carefully  studied  the  contraction 
of  the  different  muscles  during  the  act  of  crying,  and  the  furrows  on 
the  face  thus  produced,  there  seems  to  be  something  incomplete  in  his 
account ;  but  what  this  is  I  cannot  say.  He  has  given  a  figure  (Album, 
fig.  48)  in  which  one  half  of  the  face  is  made,  by  galvanizing  the 
proper  muscles,  to  smile ;  whilst  the  other  half  is  similarly  made  to 
begin  crying.  Almost  all  those  (viz.  nineteen  out  of  twenty-one  per- 
sons) to  whom  I  showed  the  smiling  half  of  the  face  instantly  recog- 
nized the  expression;  but,  with  respect  to  the  other  half,  only  six 
persons  out  of  twenty-one  recognized  it,— that  is,  if  we  accept  such 
terms  as  "  grief,"  "  misery,"  "  annoyance,"  as  correct ; — whereas,  fifteen 
persons  were  ludicrously  mistaken;  some  of  them  saying  the  face 
expressed  "  fun,"  "  satisfaction,"  "  cunning,"  "  disgust,"  &c.  We  may 
infer  from  this  that  there  is  something  wrong  in  the  expression.  Some 
of  the  fifteen  persons  may,  however,  have  been  partly  misled  by  not 
expecting  to  see  an  old  man  crying,  and  by  tears  not  being  secreted . 
With  respect  to  another  figure  by  Dr.  Duchenne  (fig.  49)?  in  which  the 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  151 

As  the  upper  lip  is  much  drawn  up  during  the  act  of 
screaming,  in  the  manner  just  explained,  the  depressor 
muscles  of  the  angles  of  the  mouth  (see  K  in  wood- 
cuts 1  and  2)  are  strongly  contracted  in  order  to  keep 
the  mouth  widely  open,  so  that  a  full  volume  of  sound 
may  be  poured  forth.  The  action  of  these  opposed 
muscles,  above  and  below,  tends  to  give  to  the  mouth 
an  oblong,  almost  squarish  outline,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  accompanying  photographs.  An  excellent  ob- 
server,5 in  describing  a  baby  crying  whilst  being  fed, 
says,  "  it  made  its  mouth  like  a  square,  and  let  the  por- 
"  ridge  run  out  at  all  four  corners."  I  believe,  but  we 
shall  return  to  this  point  in  a  future  chapter,  that  the 
depressor  muscles  of  the  angles  of  the  mouth  are  less 
under  the  separate  control  of  the  will  than  the  adjoining 
muscles ;  so  that  if  a  young  child  is  only  doubtfully 
inclined  to  cry,  this  muscle  is  generally  the  first  to 
contract,  and  is  the  last  to  cease  contracting.  When 
older  children  commence  crying,  the  muscles  which 
run  to  the  upper  lip  are  often  the  first  to  contract; 
and  this  may  perhaps  be  due  to  older  children  not 
having  so  strong  a  tendency  to  scream  loudly,  and  con- 
sequently to  keep  their  mouths  widely  open ;  so  that 
the  above-named  depressor  muscles  are  not  brought 
into  such  strong  action. 

With  one  of  my  own  infants,  from  his  eighth  day  and 


muscles  of  half  the  face  are  galvanized  in  order  to  represent  a  man 
beginning  to  cry,  with  the  eyebrow  on  the  same  side  rendered  oblique, 
which  is  characteristic  of  misery,  the  expression  was  recognized  by  a 
greater  proportional  number  of  persons.  Out  of  twenty- three  persons, 
fourteen  answered  correctly,  "sorrow,"  "distress,"  "grief,"  "just  going 
to  cry,"  "  endurance  of  pain,"  &c.  On  the  other  hand,  nine  persons  either 
could  form  no  opinion  or  were  entirely  wrong,  answering,  "  cunning 
leer,"  "jocund,"  "looking  at  an  intense  light,"  "looking  at  a  distant 
object,"  &c. 

6  Mrs.  Gaskell,  '  Mary  Barlon,'  new  edit.  p.  84. 


152  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING :  CHAP.  VI. 

for  some  time  afterwards,  I  often  observed  that  the  first 
sign  of  a  screaming-fit,  when  it  could  be  observed  coming 
on  gradually,  was  a  little  frown,  owing  to  the  con- 
traction of  the  corrugators  of  the  brows ;  the  capillaries 
of  the  naked  head  and  face  becoming  at  the  same  time 
reddened  with  blood.  As  soon  as  the  screaming-fit 
actually  began,  all  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  were 
strongly  contracted,  and  the  mouth  widely  opened  in 
the  manner  above  described ;  so  that  at  this  early  period 
the  features  assumed  the  same  form  as  at  a  more 
advanced  age. 

Dr.  Piderit 6  lays  great  stress  on  the  contraction  of 
certain  muscles  which  draw  down  the  nose  and  narrow 
the  nostrils,  as  eminently  characteristic  of  a  crying 
expression.  The  depressores  anguli  oris,  as  we  have 
just  seen,  are  usually  contracted  at  the  same  time,  and 
they  indirectly  tend,  according  to  Dr.  Duchenne,  to 
act  in  this  same  manner  on  the  nose.  With  children 
having  bad  colds  a  similar  pinched  appearance  of  the 
nose  may  be  noticed,  which  is  at  least  partly  due,  as 
remarked  to  me  by  Dr.  Langstaff,  to  their  constant 
snuffling,  and  the  consequent  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
sphere on  the  two  sides.  The  purpose  of  this  contraction 
of  the  nostrils  by  children  having  bad  colds,  or  whilst 
crying,  seems  to  be  to  check  the  downward  flow  of  the 
mucus  and  tears,  and  to  prevent  these  fluids  spreading 
over  the  upper  lip. 

After  a  prolonged  and  severe  screaming-fit,  the  scalp, 
face,  and  eyes  are  reddened,  owing  to  the  return  of  the 
blood  from  the  head  having  been  impeded  by  the  violent 
expiratory  efforts ;  but  the  redness  of  the  stimulated 
eyes  is  chiefly  due  to  the  copious  effusion  of  tears.  The 


•  '  Mimik  und  Physiognomik,'  1867,  s.  102.    Duchenne,  Mecanisme 
de  la  Phys.  Humaine,  Album,  p.  34. 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  153 

various  muscles  of  the  face  which  have  been  strongly 
contracted,  still  twitch  a  little,  and  the  upper  lip  is  still 
slightly  drawn  up  or  everted,7  with  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  still  a  little  drawn  downwards.  I  have  myself 
felt,  and  have  observed  in  other  grown-up  persons,  that 
when  tears  are  restrained  with  difficulty,  as  in  reading 
a  pathetic  story,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  prevent 
the  various  muscles,  which  with  young  children  are 
brought  into  strong  action  during  their  screaming-fits, 
from  slightly  twitching  or  trembling. 

Infants  whilst  young  do  not  shed  tears  or  weep,  as  is 
well  known  to  nurses  and  medical  men.  This  circum- 
stance is  not  exclusively  due  to  the  lacrymal  glands 
being  as  yet  incapable  of  secreting  tears.  I  first  noticed 
this  fact  from  having  accidentally  brushed  with  the 
cuff  of  my  coat  the  open  eye  of  one  of  my  infants, 
when  seventy-seven  days  old,  causing  this  eye  to  water 
freely ;  and  though  the  child  screamed  violently,  the 
other  eye  remained  dry,  or  was  only  slightly  suffused 
with  tears.  A  similar  slight  effusion  occurred  ten 
days  previously  in  both  eyes  during  a  screaming- 
fit.  The  tears  did  not  run  over  the  eyelids  and  roll 
down  the  cheeks  of  this  child,  whilst  screaming  badly, 
when  122  days  old.  This  first  happened  17  days 
later,  at  the  age  of  139  days.  A  few  other  children 
have  been  observed  for  me,  and  the  period  of  free  weep- 
ing appears  to  be  very  variable.  In  one  case,  the  eyes 
became  slightly  suffused  at  the  age  of  only  20  days ;  in 
another,  at  62  days.  With  two  other  children,  the  tears 
did  not  run  down  the  face  at  the  ages  of  84  and  110 
days ;  but  in  a  third  child  they  did  run  down  at  the  age 
of  104  days.  In  one  instance,  as  I  was  positively 
assured,  tears  ran  down  at  the  unusually  early  age  of 


7  Dr.  Duchenne  makes  this  remark,  ibid.  p.  39. 


154  EXPRESSION  OF   SUFFERING:  CHAP.  VI. 

42  days.  It  would  appear  as  if  the  lacrymal  glands 
required  some  practice  in  the  individual  before  they 
are  easily  excited  into  action,  in  somewhat  the  same 
manner  as  various  inherited  consensual  movements  and 
tastes  require  some  exercise  before  they  are  fixed  and 
perfected.  This  is  all  the  more  likely  with  a  habit 
like  weeping,  which  must  have  been  acquired  since  the 
period  when  man  branched  off  from  the  common  pro- 
genitor of  the  genus  Homo  and  of  the  non-weeping 
anthropomorphous  apes. 

The  fact  of  tears  not  being  shed  at  a  very  early  age 
from  pain  or  any  mental  emotion  is  remarkable,  as, 
later  in  life,  no  expression  is  more  general  or  more 
strongly  marked  than  weeping.  When  the  habit  has 
once  been  acquired  by  an  infant,  it  expresses  in  the 
clearest  manner  suffering  of  all  kinds,  both  bodily 
pain  and  mental  distress,  even  though  accompanied  by 
other  emotions,  such  as  fear  or  rage.  The  character 
of  the  crying,  however,  changes  at  a  very  early  age, 
as  I  noticed  in  my  own  infants, — the  passionate  cry 
differing  from  that  of  grief.  A  lady  informs  me  that 
her  'child,  nine  months  old,  when  in  a  passion  screams 
loudly,  but  does  not  weep ;  tears,  however,  are  shed 
when  she  is  punished  by  her  chair  being  turned  with 
its  back  to  the  table.  This  difference  may  perhaps  be 
attributed  to  weeping  being  restrained,  as  we  shall  im- 
mediately see,  at  a  more  advanced  age,  under  most 
circumstances  excepting  grief ;  and  to  the  influence  of 
such  restraint  being  transmitted  to  an  earlier  period  of 
life,  than  that  at  which  it  was  first  practised. 

With  adults,  especially  of  the  male  sex,  weeping  soon 
ceases  to  be  caused  by,  or  to  express,  bodily  pain.  This 
may  be  accounted  for  by  its  being  thought  weak  and 
unmanly  by  men,  both  of  civilized  and  barbarous 
races,  to  exhibit  bodily  pain  by  any  outward  sign.  With 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  155 

this  exception,  savages  weep  copiously  from  very  slight 
causes,  of  which  fact  Sir  J.  Lubbock 8  has  collected 
instances.  A  New  Zealand  chief  "cried  like  a  child 
"  because  the  sailors  spoilt  his  favourite  cloak  by 
"  powdering  it  with  flour."  I  saw  in  Tierra  del  Fuego 
a  native  who  had  lately  lost  a  brother,  and  who  alter- 
nately cried  with  hysterical  violence,  and  laughed  hear- 
tily at  anything  which  amused  him.  With  the  civilized 
nations  of  Europe  there  is  also  much  difference  in  the 
frequency  of  weeping.  Englishmen  rarely  cry,  except 
under  the  pressure  of  the  acutest  grief;  whereas  in 
some  parts  of  the  Continent  the  men  shed  tears  much 
more  readily  and  freely. 

The  insane  notoriously  give  way  to  all  their  emo- 
tions with  little  or  no  restraint;  and  I  am  informed 
by  Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne,  that  nothing  is  more  cha- 
racteristic of  simple  melancholia,  even  in  the  male  sex. 
than  a  tendency  to  weep  on  the  slightest  occasions,  or 
from  no  cause.  They  also  weep  disproportionately  on 
the  occurrence  of  any  real  cause  of  grief.  The  length 
of  time  during  which  some  patients  weep  is  astonishing, 
as  well  as  the  amount  of  tears  which  they  shed.  One 
melancholic  girl  wept  for  a  whole  day,  and  afterwards 
confessed  to  Dr.  Browne,  that  it  was  because  she  re- 
membered that  she  had  once  shaved  off  her  eyebrows 
to  promote  their  growth.  Many  patients  in  the  asylum 
sit  for  a  long  time  rocking  themselves  backwards  and 
forwards;  "and  if  spoken  to,  they  stop  their  move- 
"  ments,  purse  up  their  eyes,  depress  the  corners  of 
"  the  mouth,  and  burst  out  crying."  In  some  of  these 
cases,  the  being  spoken  to  or  kindly  greeted  appears 
to  suggest  some  fanciful  and  sorrowful  notion;  but 
in  other  cases  an  effort  of  any  kind  excites  weeping, 


'  The  Origin  of  Civilization,'  1870,  p.  355. 


156  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING :  CHAP.  VL 

independently  of  any  sorrowful  idea.  Patients  suffering 
from  acute  mania  likewise  have  paroxysms  of  violent 
crying  or  blubbering,  in  the  midst  of  their  incoherent 
ravings.  We  must  not,  however,  lay  too  much  stress 
on  the  copious  shedding  of  tears  by  the  insane,  as 
being  due  to  the  lack  of  all  restraint ;  for  certain  brain- 
diseases,  as  hemiplegia,  brain-wasting,  and  senile  decay, 
have  a  special  tendency  to  induce  weeping.  Weeping 
is  common  in  the  insane,  even  after  a  complete  state 
of  fatuity  has  been  reached  arid  the  power  of  speech 
lost.  Persons  born  idiotic  likewise  weep  ; 9  but  it  is  said 
that  this  is  not  the  case  with  cretins. 

Weeping  seems  to  be  the  primary  and  natural  expres- 
sion, as  we  see  in  children,  of  suffering  of  any  kind, 
whether  bodily  pain  short  of  extreme  agony,  or 
mental  distress.  But  the  foregoing  facts  and  common 
experience  show  us  that  a  frequently  repeated  effort  to 
restrain  weeping,  in  association  with  certain  states  of 
the  mind,  does  much  in  checking  the  habit.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  appears  that  the  power  of  weeping  can  be 
increased  through  habit ;  thus  the  Rev.  R.  Taylor,10  who 
long  resided  in  New  Zealand,  asserts  that  the  women 
can  voluntarily  shed  tears  in  abundance ;  they  meet  for 
this  purpose  to  mourn  for  the  dead,  and  they  take  pride 
in  crying  "  in  the  most  affecting  manner." 

A  single  effort  of  repression  brought  to  bear  on  the 
lacrymal  glands  does  little,  and  indeed  seems  often  to 
lead  to  an  opposite  result.  An  old  and  experienced 
physician  told  me  that  he  had  always  found  that  the 
only  means  to  check  the  occasional  bitter  weeping  of 
ladies  who  consulted  him,  and  who  themselves  wished 


9  See,  for  instance,  Mr.  Marshall's  account  of  an  idiot  in  Philosoph. 
Transact.  1864,  p.  526.     With  respect  to  cretins,  see  Dr.  Piderit, 
'  Mimik  und  Physiognomik,'  1867,  s.  61. 

10  «  New  Zealand  and  its  Inhabitants/  1855,  p.  175. 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  157 

to  desist,  was  earnestly  to  beg  them  not  to  try,  and 
to  assure  them  that  nothing  would  relieve  them  so 
much  as  prolonged  and  copious  crying. 

The  screaming  of  infants  consists  of  prolonged  expi- 
rations, with  short  and  rapid,  almost  spasmodic  inspira- 
tions, followed  at  a  somewhat  more  advanced  age  by 
sobbing.  According  to  Gratiolet,11  the  glottis  is  chiefly 
affected  during  the  act  of  sobbing.  This  sound  is 
heard  "at  the  moment  when  the  inspiration  conquers 
"  the  resistance  of  the  glottis,  and  the  air  rushes  into  the 
"  chest."  But  the  whole  act  of  respiration  is  likewise 
spasmodic  and  violent.  The  shoulders  are  at  the  same 
time  generally  raised,  as  by  this  movement  respiration 
is  rendered  easier.  With  one  of  my  infants,  when 
seventy-seven  days  old,  the  inspirations  were  so  rapid 
and  strong  that  they  approached  in  character  to  sobbing ; 
when  138  days  old  I  first  noticed  distinct  sobbing, 
which  subsequently  followed  every  bad  crying -fit. 
The  respiratory  movements  are  partly  voluntary  and 
partly  involuntary,  and  I  apprehend  that  sobbing  is  at 
least  in  part  due  to  children  having  some  power  to 
command  after  early  infancy  their  vocal  organs  and  to 
stop  their  screams,  but  from  having  less  power  over 
their  respiratory  muscles,  these  continue  for  a  time 
to  act  in  an  involuntary  or  spasmodic  manner,  after 
having  been  brought  into  violent  action.  Sobbing 
seems  to  be  peculiar  to  the  human  species ;  for  the 
keepers  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  assure  me  that  they 
have  never  heard  a  sob  from  any  kind  of  monkey; 
though  monkeys  often  scream  loudly  whilst  being 
chased  and  caught,  and  then  pant  for  a  long  time. 
We  thus  see  that  there  is  a  close  analogy  between  sob- 
bing and  the  free  shedding  of  tears ;  for  with  children, 


11  « De  la  Physionomie,'  1865,  p.  126. 


158  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING:  CHAP.  VI. 

sobbing  does  not  commence  during  early  infancy,  but 
afterwards  comes  on  rather  suddenly  and  then  follows 
every  bad  crying-fit,  until  the  habit  is  checked  with 
advancing  years. 

On  the  cause  of  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  round 
the  eyes  during  screaming. — We  have  seen  that  infants 
and  young  children,  whilst  screaming,  invariably  close 
their  eyes  firmly,  by  the  contraction  of  the  surrounding 
muscles,  so  that  the  skin  becomes  wrinkled  all  around. 
With  older  children,  and  even  with  adults,  whenever 
there  is  violent  and  unrestrained  crying,  a  tendency  to 
the  contraction  of  these  same  muscles  may  be  observed  ; 
though  this  is  often  checked  in  order  not  to  interfere 
with  vision. 

Sir  C.  Bell  explains12  this  action  in  the  following 
manner:  —  "During  every  violent  act  of  expiration, 
"  whether  in  hearty  laughter,  weeping,  coughing,  or 
"  sneezing,  the  eyeball  is  firmly  compressed  by  the 
"  fibres  of  the  orbicularis ;  and  this  is  a  provision  for 
"  supporting  and  defending  the  vascular  system  of  the 
"  interior  of  the  eye  from  a  retrograde  impulse  com- 
"  municated  to  the  blood  in  the  veins  at  that  time. 
"  When  we  contract  the  chest  and  expel  the  air,  there 
"  is  a  retardation  of  the  blood  in  the  veins  of  the  neck 
"  and  head ;  and  in  the  more  powerful  acts  of  expul- 
"  sion,  the  blood  not  only  distends  the  vessels,  but  is 
"  even  regurgitated  into  the  minute  branches.  Were 
"  the  eye  not  properly  compressed  at  that  time,  and  a 
"  resistance  given  to  the  shock,  irreparable  injury  might 
"  be  inflicted  on  the  delicate  textures  of  the  interior  of 
"  the  eye."  He  further  adds,  "  If  we  separate  the  eye- 


12  *  The  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  1844,  p.  106.  See  also  his  paper  in 
the  'Philosophical  Transactions,'  1822,  p.  284,  ibid.  1823,  pp.  166  and 
289.  Also  '  The  Nervous  System  of  the  Human  Body,'  3rd  edit.  1836, 
p.  175. 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  159 

u  lids  of  a  child  to  examine  the  eye,  while  it  cries  and 
"  struggles  with  passion,  by  taking  off  the  natural 
"  support  to  the  vascular  system  of  the  eye,  and  means 
"  of  guarding  it  against  the  rush  of  blood  then  occur- 
"  ring,  the  conjunctiva  becomes  suddenly  filled  with 
"  blood,  and  the  eyelids  everted." 

Not  only  are  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  strongly 
contracted,  as  Sir  C.  Bell  states  and  as  I  have  often 
observed,  during  screaming,  loud  laughter,  coughing,  and 
sneezing,  but  during  several  other  analogous  actions. 
A  man  contracts  these  muscles  when  he  violently  blows 
his  nose.  I  asked  one  of  my  boys  to  shout  as  loudly  as 
he  possibly  could,  and  as  soon  as  he  began,  he  firmly 
contracted  his  orbicular  muscles ;  I  observed  this  re- 
peatedly, and  on  asking  him  why  he  had  every  time 
so  firmly  closed  his  eyes,  I  found  that  he  was  quite 
unaware  of  the  fact:  he  had  acted  instinctively  or 
unconsciously. 

It  is  not  necessary,  in  order  to  lead  to  the  contraction 
of  these  muscles,  that  air  should  actually  be  expelled 
from  the  chest ;  it  suffices  that  the  muscles  of  the  chest 
and  abdomen  should  contract  with  great  force,  whilst  by 
the  closure  of  the  glottis  no  air  escapes.  In  violent 
vomiting  or  retching  the  diaphragm  is  made  to  descend 
by  the  chest  being  filled  with  air ;  it  is  then  held  in 
this  position  by  the  closure  of  the  glottis,  "  as  well  as  by 
"  the  contraction  of  its  own  fibres." 13  The  abdominal 
muscles  now  contract  strongly  upon  the  stomach,  its 
proper  muscles  likewise  contracting,  and  the  contents 
are  thus  ejected.  During  each  effort  of  vomiting  "  the 
"  head  becomes  greatly  congested,  so  that  the  features 
"  are  red  and  swollen,  and  the  large  veins  of  the  face 


13  S3e  Dr.  Brinton's  account  of  the  act  of  vomiting,   in    Todd's 
Cyclop,  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  1859,  vol.  v.  Supplement,  p.  318. 


160  EXPRESSION   OF  SUFFERING  I  CHAP.  \  I. 

"  and  temples  visibly  dilated."  At  the  same  time,  as  I 
know  from  observation,  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  are 
strongly  contracted.  This  is  likewise  the  case  when 
the  abdominal  muscles  act  downwards  with  unusual 
force  in  expelling  the  contents  of  the  intestinal  canal. 

The  greatest  exertion  of  the  muscles  of  the  body,  if 
those  of  the  chest  are  not  brought  into  strong  action  in 
expelling  or  compressing  the  air  within  the  lungs,  does 
not  lead  to  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  round  the 
eyes.  I  have  observed  my  sons  using  great  force  in 
gymnastic  exercises,  as  in  repeatedly  raising  their  sus- 
pended bodies  by  their  arms  alone,  and  in  lifting  heavy 
weights  from  the  ground,  but  there  was  hardly  any 
trace  of  contraction  in  the  muscles  round  the  eyes. 

As  the  contraction  of  these  muscles  for  the  protection 
of  the  eyes  during  violent  expiration  is  indirectly,  as 
we  shall  hereafter  see,  a  fundamental  element  in  several 
of  our  most  important  expressions,  I  was  extremely 
anxious  to  ascertain  how  far  Sir  C.  Bell's  view  could  be 
substantiated.  Professor  Bonders,  of  Utrecht,14  well 
known  as  one  of  the  highest  authorities  in  Europe  en 
vision  and  on  the  structure  of  the  eye,  has  most  kindly 
undertaken  for  me  this  investigation  with  the  aid  of  the 
many  ingenious  mechanisms  of  modern  science,  and  has 
published  the  results.15  He  shows  that  during  violent 
expiration  the  external,  the  intra-ocular,  and  the  retro- 


14  I  am  greatly  indebted  to  Mr.  Bowman  for  having  introduced  me 
to  Prof.  Bonders,  and  for  his  aid  in  persuading  this  great  physiologist 
to  undertake  the  investigation  of  the  present  subject.     I  am  likewise 
much  indebted  to  Mr.  Bowman  for  having  given  me,  with  the  utmost 
kindness,  information  on  many  points. 

15  This  memoir  first  appeared  in  the  '  Nederlandsch  Archief  voor 
Genees  en  Natuurkunde,'  Deel  5,  1870.     It  has  been  translated  by 
Dr.  W.  D.  Moore,  under  the  title  of  "  On  the  Action  of  the  Eyelids  in 
determination  of  Blood  from  expiratory  effort,"  in  «  Archives  of  Medi- 
cine,' edited  by  Dr.  L.  S.  Beale,  1870,  vol.  v,  p.  20. 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  161 

ocular  vessels  of  the  eye  are  all  affected  in  two  ways, 
namely  by  the  increased  pressure  of  the  blood  in  the 
arteries,  and  by  the  return  of  the  blood  in  the  veins 
being  impeded.  It  is,  therefore,  certain  that  both  the 
arteries  and  the  veins  of  the  eye  are  more  or  less  dis- 
tended during  violent  expiration.  The  evidence  in 
detail  may  be  found  in  Professor  Donders'  valuable 
memoir.  We  see  the  effects  on  the  veins  of  the  head, 
in  their  prominence,  and  in  the  purple  colour  of  the 
face  of  a  man  who  coughs  violently  from  being  half 
choked.  I  may  mention,  on  the  same  authority,  that 
the  whole  eye  certainly  advances  a  little  during  each 
violent  expiration.  This  is  due  to  the  dilatation  of  the 
retro-ocular  vessels,  and  might  have  been  expected  from 
the  intimate  connection  of  the  eye  and  brain ;  the  brain 
being  known  to  rise  and  fall  with  each  respiration,  when 
a  portion  of  the  skull  has  been  removed ;  and  as  may 
be  seen  along  the  unclosed  sutures  of  infants'  heads. 
This  also,  I  presume,  is  the  reason  that  the  eyes  of 
a  strangled  man  appear  as  if  they  were  starting  from 
their  sockets. 

With  respect  to  the  protection  of  the  eye  during 
violent  expiratory  efforts  by  the  pressure  of  the  eyelids, 
Professor  Donders  concludes  from  his  various  obser- 
vations that  this  action  certainly  limits  or  entirely  re- 
moves the  dilatation  of  the  vessels.16  At  such  times,  he 


19  Prof.  Bonders  remarks  (ibid.  p.  28),  that,  "  After  injury  to  the 
"  eye,  after  operations,  and  in  some  forms  of  internal  inflammation,  we 
"  attach  great  value  to  the  uniform  support  of  the  closed  eyelids,  and 
"  we  increase  this  in  many  instances  by  the  application  of  a  bandage. 
"  In  both  cases  we  carefully  endeavour  to  avoid  great  expiratory  pressure, 
"  the  disadvantage  of  which  is  well  known."  Mr.  Bowman  informs 
me  that  in  the  excessive  photophobia,  accompanying  what  is  called 
scrofulous  ophthalmia  in  children,  when  the  light  is  so  very  painful 
that  during  weeks  or  months  it  is  constantly  excluded  by  the-  most 
forcible  closure  of  the  lids,  he  has  often  been  struck  on  opening  the 


162  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING :  CHAP.  VI. 

adds,  we  not  unfrequently  see  the  hand  involuntarily 
laid  upon  the  eyelids,  as  if  the  better  to  support  and 
defend  the  eyeball. 

Nevertheless  much  evidence  cannot  at  present  be 
advanced  to  prove  that  the  eye  actually  suffers  injury 
from  the  want  of  support  during  violent  expiration ;  but 
there  is  some.  It  is  "a  fact  that  forcible  expiratory 
"  efforts  in  violent  coughing  or  vomiting,  and  especially 
"  in  sneezing,  sometimes  give  rise  to  ruptures  of  the 
"  little  (external)  vessels  "  of  the  eye.17  With  respect 
to  the  internal  vessels,  Dr.  Gunning  has  lately  recorded 
a  case  of  exophthalmos  in  consequence  of  whooping- 
cough,  which  in  his  opinion  depended  on  the  rupture 
of  the  deeper  vessels ;  and  another  analogous  case  has 
been  recorded.  But  a  mere  sense  of  discomfort  would 
probably  suffice  to  lead  to  the  associated  habit  of  pro- 
tecting the  eyeball  by  the  contraction  of  the  sur- 
rounding muscles.  Even  the  expectation  or  chance  of 
injury  would  probably  be  sufficient,  in  the  same 
manner  as  an  object  moving  too  near  the  eye  induces 
involuntary  winking  of  the  eyelids.  We  may,  there- 
fore, safely  conclude  from  Sir  C.  Bell's  observations, 
and  more  especially  from  the  more  careful  investiga- 
tions by  Professor  Donders,  that  the  firm  closure  of 
the  eyelids  during  the  screaming  of  children  is  an 
action  full  of  meaning  and  of  real  service. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  contraction  of  the 
orbicular  muscles  leads  to  the  drawing  up  of  the  upper 
lip,  and  consequently,  if  the  mouth  is  kept  widely 


lids  by  the  paleness  of  the  eye, — not  an  unnatural  paleness,  but  an 
absence  of  the  redness  that  might  have  been  expected  when  the  sur- 
face is  somewhat  inflamed,  as  is  then  usually  the  case ;  and  this 
paleness  he  is  inclined  to  attribute  to  the  forcible  closure  of  the 
eyelids. 

»7  Donders,  ibid.  p.  36. 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  163 

open,  to  the  drawing  down  of  the  corners  by  the  con- 
traction of  the  depressor  muscles.  The  formation  of  the 
naso-labial  fold  on  the  cheeks  likewise  follows  from  the 
drawing  up  of  the  upper  lip.  Thus  all  the  chief  ex- 
pressive movements  of  the  face  during  crying  apparently 
result  from  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  round  the 
eyes.  We  shall  also  find  that  the  shedding  of  tears 
depends  on,  or  at  least  stands  in  some  connection  with, 
the  contraction  of  these  same  muscles. 

In  some  of  the  foregoing  cases,  especially  in  those  of 
sneezing  and  coughing,  it  is  possible  that  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  orbicular  muscles  may  serve  in  addition  to 
protect  the  eyes  from  too  severe  a  jar  or  vibration.  I 
think  so,  because  dogs  and  cats,  in  crunching  hard 
bones,  always  close  their  eyelids,  and  at  least  sometimes 
in  sneezing ;  though  dogs  do  not  do  so  whilst  barking 
loudly.  Mr.  Sutton  carefully  observed  for  me  a  young 
orang  and  chimpanzee,  and  he  found  that  both  always 
closed  their  eyes  in  sneezing  and  coughing,  but  not 
whilst  screaming  violently.  I  gave  a  small  pinch  of 
snuff  to  a  monkey  of  the  American  division,  namely,  a 
Cebus,  and  it  closed  its  eyelids  whilst  sneezing;  but 
not  on  a  subsequent  occasion  whilst  uttering  loud  cries. 

Cause  of  the  secretion  of  tears. — It  is  an  important 
fact  which  must  be  considered  in  any  theory  of  the 
secretion  of  tears  from  the  mind  being  affected,  that 
whenever  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  are  strongly 
and  involuntarily  contracted  in  order  to  compress 
the  blood-vessels  and  thus  to  protect  the  eyes,  tears 
are  secreted,  often  in  sufficient  abundance  to  roll 
down  the  cheeks.  This  occurs  under  the  most  opposite 
emotions,  and  under  no  emotion  at  all.  The  sole  ex- 
ception, and  this  is  only  a  partial  one,  to  the  existence 
of  a  relation  between  the  involuntary  and  strong 
contraction  of  these  muscles  and  the  secretion  of  tears, 


164  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING:         CHAP.  vi. 

is  that  of  young  infants,  who,  whilst  screaming  violently 
with  their  eyelids  firmly  closed,  do  not  commonly  weep 
until  they  have  attained  the  age  of  from  two  to  three 
or  four  months.  Their  eyes,  however,  become  suffused 
with  tears  at  a  much  earlier  age.  It  would  appear,  as 
already  remarked,  that  the  lacrymal  glands  do  not, 
from  the  want  of  practice  or  some  other  cause,  come  to 
full  functional  activity  at  a  very  early  period  of  life. 
With  children  at  a  somewhat  later  age,  crying  out  or 
wailing  from  any  distress  is  so  regularly  accompanied 
by  the  shedding  of  tears,  that  weeping  and  crying  are 
synonymous  terms.18 

Under  the  opposite  emotion  of  great  joy  or  amuse- 
ment, as  long  as  laughter  is  moderate  there  is  hardly 
any  contraction  of  the  muscles  round  the  eyes,  so  that 
there  is  no  frowning ;  but  when  peals  of  loud  laughter 
are  uttered,  with  rapid  and  violent  spasmodic  expira- 
tions, tears  stream  down  the  face.  I  have  more  than 
once  noticed  the  face  of  a  person,  after  a  paroxysm 
of  violent  laughter,  and  I  could  see  that  the  orbicular 
muscles  and  those  running  to  the  upper  lip  were  still 
partially  contracted,  which  together  with,  the  tear- 
stained  cheeks  gave  to  the  upper  half  of  the  face  an 
expression  not  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of  a  child 
still  blubbering  from  grief.  The  fact  of  tears  streaming 
clown  the  face  during  violent  laughter  is  common  to 
all  the  races  of  mankind,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  future 
chapter. 

In  violent  coughing,  especially  when  a  person  is  half- 
choked,  the  face  becomes  purple,  the  veins  distended, 
the  orbicular  muscles  strongly  contracted,  and  tears 


18  Mr.  Hensleigh  Wedgwood  (Diet,  of  English  Etymology,  1859, 
vol.  i.  p.  410)  says,  "  the  verb  to  weep  coines  from  Anglo-Saxon  tcop, 
"  the  primary  meaning  of  which  is  simply  outcry." 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  1 65 

run  down  the  cheeks.  Even  after  a  fit  of  ordinary 
coughing,  almost  every  one  has  to  wipe  his  eyes.  In 
violent  vomiting  or  retching,  as  I  have  myself  expe- 
rienced and  seen  in  others,  the  orbicular  muscles  are 
strongly  contracted,  and  tears  sometimes  flow  freely 
down  the  cheeks.  It  has  been  suggested  to  me  that 
this  may  be  due  to  irritating  matter  being  injected  into 
the  nostrils,  and  causing  by  reflex  action  the  secretion 
of  tears.  Accordingly  I  asked  one  of  my  informants, 
a  surgeon,  to  attend  to  the  effects  of  retching  when 
nothing  was  thrown  up  from  the  stomach;  and,  by  an 
odd  coincidence,  he  himself  suffered  the  next  morning 
from  an  attack  of  retching,  and  three  days  subsequently 
observed  a  lady  under  a  similar  attack  ;  and  he  is  cer- 
tain that  in  neither  case  an  atom  of  matter  was  ejected 
from  the  stomach ;  yet  the  orbicular  muscles  were 
strongly  contracted,  and  tears  freely  secreted.  I  can 
also  speak  positively  to  the  energetic  contraction  of 
these  same  muscles  round  the  eyes,  and  to  the  coin- 
cident free  secretion  of  tears,  when  the  abdominal 
muscles  act  with  unusual  force  in  a  downward  direction 
on  the  intestinal  canal. 

Yawning  commences  with  a  deep  inspiration,  fol- 
lowed by  a  long  and  forcible  expiration;  and  at  the 
same  time  almost  all  the  muscles  of  the  body  are 
strongly  contracted,  including  those  round  the  eyes. 
During  this  act  tears  are  often  secreted,  and  I  have 
seen  them  even  rolling  down  the  cheeks. 

I  have  frequently  observed  that  when  persons  scratch 
some  point  which  itches  intolerably,  they  forcibly  close 
their  eyelids ;  but  they  do  not,  as  I  believe,  first  draw  a 
deep  breath  and  then  expel  it  with  force ;  and  I  have 
never  noticed  that  the  eyes  then  become  filled  with 
tears ;  but  I  am  not  prepared  to  assert  that  this  does 
not  occur.  The  forcible  closure  of  the  eyelids  is,  per- 


1G6  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING:  CHAP.  VI. 

haps,  merely  a  part  of  that  general  action  by  which 
almost  all  the  muscles  of  the  body  are  at  the  same  time 
rendered  rigid.  It  is  quite  different  from  the  gentle 
closure  of  the  eyes  which  often  accompanies,  as  Gratiolet 
remarks,19  the  smelling  a  delicious  odour,  or  the  tasting 
a  delicious  morsel,  and  which  probably  originates  in 
the  desire  to  shut  out  any  disturbing  impression 
through  the  eyes. 

Professor  Donders  writes  to  me  to  the  following  effect : 
"  I  have  observed  some  cases  of  a  very  curious  affection 
"  when,  after  a  slight  rub  (attouchement),  for  example, 
"  from  the  friction  of  a  coat,  which  caused  neither 
"  a  wound  nor  a  contusion,  spasms  of  the  orbicular 
"  muscles  occurred,  with  a  very  profuse  flow  of  tears, 
"  lasting  about  an  hour.  Subsequently,  sometimes  after 
"  an  interval  of  several  weeks,  violent  spasms  of  the 
"  same  muscles  re-occurred,  accompanied  by  the  secre- 
"  tion  of  tears,  together  with  primary  or  secondary  red- 
"  ness  of  the  eye."  Mr.  Bowman  informs  me  that  he 
has  occasionally  observed  closely  analogous  cases,  and 
that,  in  some  of  these,  there  was  no  redness  or  inflamma- 
tion of  the  eyes. 

I  was  anxious  to  ascertain  whether  there  existed  in 
any  of  the  lower  animals  a  similar  relation  between 
the  contraction  of  the  orbicular  muscles  during  violent 
expiration  and  the  secretion  of  tears;  but  there  are 
very  few  animals  which  contract  these  muscles  in  a 
prolonged  manner,  or  which  shed  tears.  The  Macacus 
maurus,  which  formerly  wept  so  copiously  in  the  Zoo- 
logical Gardens,  would  have  been  a  fine  case  for  observa- 
tion; but  the  two  monkeys  now  there,  and  which  are 
believed  to  belong  to  the  same  species,  do  not  weep. 
Nevertheless  they  were  carefully  observed  by  Mr. 


19  « De  la  Physionomie,'  1865,  p.  217. 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  1(37 

Bartlett  and  myself,  whilst  screaming  loudly,  and  they 
seemed  to  contract  these  muscles;  but  they  moved 
about  their  cages  so  rapidly,  that  it  was  difficult  to 
observe  with  certainty.  No  other  monkey,  as  far  as 
I  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  contracts  its  orbicular 
muscles  whilst  screaming. 

The  Indian  elephant  is  known  sometimes  to  weep. 
Sir  E.  Tennent,  in  describing  those  which  he  saw  cap- 
tured and  bound  in  Ceylon,  says,  some  "  lay  motionless 
"  on  the  ground,  with  no  other  indication  of  suffering 
"  than  the  tears  which  suffused  their  eyes  and  flowed 
"  incessantly."  Speaking  of  another  elephant  he  says, 
"  When  overpowered  and  made  fast,  his  grief  was  most 
"  affecting;  his  violence  sank  to  utter  prostration,  and 
"  he  lay  on  the  ground,  uttering  choking  cries,  with 
"  tears  trickling  down  his  cheeks." 20  In  the  Zoological 
Gardens  the  keeper  of  the  Indian  elephants  positively 
asserts  that  he  has  several  times  seen  tears  rolling  down 
the  face  of  the  old  female,  when  distressed  by  the 

20  <  Ceylon,'  3rd  edit.  1859,  vol.  ii.  pp.  364,  376.  I  applied  to  Mr. 
Thwaites,  in  Ceylon,  for  further  information  with  respect  to  the  weep- 
ing of  the  elephant ;  and  in  consequence  received  a  letter  from  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Glenie,  who,  with  others,  kindly  observed  for  me  a  herd  of 
recently  captured  elephants.  These,  when  irritated,  screamed  violently ; 
but  it  is  remarkable  that  they  never  when  thus  screaming  contracted 
the  muscles  round  the  eyes.  Nor  did  they  shed  tears ;  and  the  native 
hunters  asserted  that  they  had  never  observed  elephants  weeping. 
Nevertheless,  it  appears  to  me  impossible  to  doubt  Sir  E.  Tennent's 
distinct  details  about  their  weeping,  supported  as  they  are  by  the  positive 
assertion  of  the  keeper  in  the  Zoological  Gardens.  It  is  certain  that 
the  two  elephants  in  the  Gardens,  when  they  began  to  trumpet  loudly, 
invariably  contracted  their  orbicular  muscles.  I  can  reconcile  these 
conflicting  statements  only  by  supposing  that  the  recently  captured 
elephants  in  Ceylon,  from  being  enraged  or  frightened,  desired  to  ob- 
serve their  persecutors,  and  consequently  did  not  contract  their  orbicular 
muscles,  so  that  their  vision  might  not  be  impeded.  Those  seen  weeping 
by  Sir  E.  Tennent  were  prostrate,  and  had  given  up  the  contest  in 
despair.  The  elephants  which  trumpeted  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  at 
the  word  of  command,  were,  of  course,  neither  alarmed  nor  enraged. 


168  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFEKING  :  CHAP.  VI. 

removal  of  the  young  one.  Hence  I  was  extremely 
anxious  to  ascertain,  as  an  extension  of  the  relation 
between  the  contraction  of  the  orbicular  muscles  and 
the  shedding  of  tears  in  man,  whether  elephants  when 
screaming  or  trumpeting  loudly  contract  these  muscles. 
At  Mr.  Bartlett's  desire  the  keeper  ordered  the  old  and 
the  young  elephant  to  trumpet ;  and  we  repeatedly  saw 
in  both  animals  that,  just  as  the  trumpeting  began,  the 
orbicular  muscles,  especially  the  lower  ones,  were  dis- 
tinctly contracted.  On  a  subsequent  occasion  the  keeper 
made  the  old  elephant  trumpet  much  more  loudly,  and 
invariably  both  the  upper  and  lower  orbicular  muscles 
were  strongly  contracted,  and  now  in  an  equal  degree. 
It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  African  elephant,  which, 
however,  is  so  different  from  the  Indian  species  that  it 
is  placed  by  some  naturalists  in  a  distinct  sub-genus, 
when  made  on  two  occasions  to  trumpet  loudly,  exhi- 
hibited  no  trace  of  the  contraction  of  the  orbicular 
muscles. 

From  the  several  foregoing  cases  with  respect  to 
Man,  there  can,  I  think,  be  no  doubt  that  the  con- 
traction of  the  muscles  round  the  eyes,  during  violent 
expiration  or  when  the  expanded  chest  is  forcibly  com- 
pressed, is,  in  some  manner,  intimately  connected  with 
the  secretion  of  tears.  This  holds  good  under  widely 
different  emotions,  and  independently  of  any  emotion. 
It  is  not,  of  course,  meant  that  tears  cannot  be  secreted 
without  the  contraction  of  these  muscles ;  for  it  is  noto- 
rious that  they  are  often  freely  shed  with  the  eyelids 
not  closed,  and  with  the  brows  unwrinkled.  The  con- 
traction must  be  both  involuntary  and  prolonged,  as 
during  a  choking  fit,  or  energetic,  as  during  a  sneeze. 
The  mere  involuntary  winking  of  the  eyelids,  though 
often  repeated,  does  not  bring  tears  into  the  eyes. 
Nor  does  the  voluntary  and  prolonged  contraction  of 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  169 

the  several  surrounding  muscles  suffice.  As  the 
lacrymal  glands  of  children  are  easily  excited,  I  per- 
suaded my  own  and  several  other  children  of  different 
ages  to  contract  these  muscles  repeatedly  with  their 
utmost  force,  and  to  continue  doing  so  as  long  as  they 
possibly  could;  but  this  produced  hardly  any  effect. 
There  was  sometimes  a  little  moisture  in  the  eyes, 
but  not  more  than  apparently  could  be  accounted  for 
by  the  squeezing  out  of  the  already  secreted  tears  within 
the  glands. 

The  nature  of  the  relation  between  the  involuntary 
and  energetic  contraction  of  the  muscles  round  the  eyes, 
and  the  secretion  of  tears,  cannot  be  positively  ascer- 
tained, but  a  probable  view  may  be  suggested.  The 
primary  function  of  the  secretion  of  tears,  together 
with  some  mucus,  is  to  lubricate  the  surface  of  the 
eye  ;  and  a  secondary  one,  as  some  believe,  is  to  keep 
the  nostrils  damp,  so  that  the  inhaled  air  may  be 
moist,21  and  likewise  to  favour  the  power  of  smelling. 
But  another,  and  at  least  equally  important  function 
of  tears,  is  to  wash  out  particles  of  dust  or  other 
minute  objects  which  may  get  into  the  eyes.  That 
this  is  of  great  importance  is  clear  from  the  cases  in 
which  the  cornea  has  been  rendered  opaque  through 
inflammation,  caused  by  particles  of  dust  not  being 
removed,  in  consequence  of  the  eye  and  eyelid  becoming 
immovable.22  The  secretion  of  tears  from  the  irritation 
of  any  foreign  body  in  the  eye  is  a  reflex  action;  — 
that  is,  the  body  irritates  a  peripheral  nerve  which 
sends  an  impression  to  certain  sensory  nerve-cells  ;  these 
an  influence  to  other  cells,  and  these  again 


21  Bergeon,  as  quoted  in  the  '  Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,' 
Nov.  1871,  p.  235. 

22  See,  for  instance,  a  case  given  by  Sir  Charles  Bell,  '  Philosophical 
Transactions,'  1823,  p.  177. 


170  EXPRESSION   OF   SUFFEKING  :  CHAP.  VI. 

to  the  lacryinal  glands.  The  influence  transmitted  to 
these  glands  causes,  as  there  is  good  reason  to  believe, 
the  relaxation  of  the  muscular  coats  of  the  smaller 
arteries  ;  this  allows  more  blood  to  permeate  the 
glandular  tissue,  and  this  induces  a  free  secretion  of 
tears.  When  the  small  arteries  of  the  face,  including 
those  of  the  retina,  are  relaxed  under  very  different 
circumstances,  namely,  during  an  intense  blush,  the 
lacrymal  glands  are  sometimes  affected  in  a  like  manner, 
for  the  eyes  become  suffused  with  tears. 

It  is  difficult  to  conjecture  how  many  reflex  actions 
have  originated,  but,  in  relation  to  the  present  case  of 
the  affection  of  the  lacrymal  glands  through  irritation 
of  the  surface  of  the  eye,  it  may  be  worth  remarking 
that,  as  soon  as  some  primordial  form  became  semi- 
terrestrial  in  its  habits,  and  was  liable  to  get  particles 
of  dust  into  its  eyes,  if  these  were  not  washed  out  they 
would  cause  much  irritation;  and  on  the  principle  of 
the  radiation  of  nerve-force  to  adjoining  nerve-cells,  the 
lacrymal  glands  would  be  stimulated  to  secretion. 
As  this  would  often  recur,  and  as  nerve-force  readily 
passes  along  accustomed  channels,  a  slight  irritation 
would  ultimately  suffice  to  cause  a  free  secretion  of 
tears. 

As  soon  as  by  this,  or  by  some  other  means,  a 
reflex  action  of  this  nature  had  been  established  and 
rendered  easy,  other  stimulants  applied  to  the  surface 
of  the  eye — such  as  a  cold  wind,  slow  inflammatory 
action,  or  a  blow  on  the  eyelids — would  cause  a  copious 
secretion  of  tears,  as  we  know  to  be  the  case.  The  glands 
are  also  excited  into  action  through  the  irritation  of 
adjoining  parts.  Thus  when  the  nostrils  are  irritated 
by  pungent  vapours,  though  the  eyelids  may  be  kept 
firmly  closed,  tears  are  copiously  secreted ;  and  this  like- 
wise follows  from  a  blow  on  the  nose,  for  instance  from  a 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  171 

boxing-glove.  A  stinging  switch  on  the  face  produces, 
as  1  have  seen,  the  same  effect.  In  these  latter  cases 
the  secretion  of  tears  is  an  incidental  result,  and  of  no 
direct  service.  As  all  these  parts  of  the  face,  including 
the  lacrymal  glands,  are  supplied  with  branches  of  the 
same  nerve,  namely,  the  fifth,  it  is  in  some  degree  intel- 
ligible that  the  effects  of  the  excitement  of  any  one 
branch  should  spread  to  the  nerve-cells  or  roots  of  the 
other  branches. 

The  internal  parts  of  the  eye  likewise  act,  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  in  a  reflex  manner  on  the  lacrymal 
glands.  The  following  statements  have  been  kindly 
communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  Bowman ;  but  the  subject 
is  a  very  intricate  one,  as  all  the  parts  of  the  eye  are 
so  intimately  related  together,  and  are  so  sensitive  to 
various  stimulants.  A  strong  light  acting  on  the  retina, 
when  in  a  normal  condition,  has  very  little  tendency  to 
cause  lacrymation ;  but  with  unhealthy  children  having 
small,  old-standing  ulcers  on  the  cornea,  the  retina  be- 
comes excessively  sensitive  to  light,  and  exposure  even 
to  common  daylight  causes  forcible  and  sustained  closure 
of  the  lids,  and  a  profuse  flow  of  tears.  When  persons 
who  ought  to  begin  the  use  of  convex  glasses  habitually 
strain  the  waning  power  of  accommodation,  an  undue 
secretion  of  tears  very  often  follows,  and  the  retina  is 
liable  to  become  unduly  sensitive  to  light.  In  general, 
morbid  affections  of  the  surface  of  the  eye,  and  of  the 
ciliary  structures  concerned  in  the  accommodative  act, 
are  prone  to  be  accompanied  with  excessive  secretion  of 
tears.  Hardness  of  the  eyeball,  not  rising  to  inflamma- 
tion, but  implying  a  want  of  balance  between  the  fluids 
poured  out  and  again  taken  up  by  the  intra-ocular 
vessels,  is  not  usually  attended  with  any  lacrymation. 
When  the  balance  is  on  the  other  side,  and  the  eye 
becomes  too  soft,  there  is  a  greater  tendency  to  lacry- 


172  EXPRESSION   OF  SUFFERING  :  CHAP.  VI. 

mation.  Finally,  there  are  numerous  morbid  states  and 
structural  alterations  of  the  eyes,  and  even  terrible 
inflammations,  which  may  be  attended  with  little  or  no 
secretion  of  tears. 

It  also  deserves  notice,  as  indirectly  bearing  on  our 
subject,  that  the  eye  and  adjoining  parts  are  subject  to 
an  extraordinary  number  of  reflex  and  associated  move- 
ments, sensations,  and  actions,  besides  those  relating  to 
the  lacrymal  glands.  When  a  bright  light  strikes  the 
retina  of  one  eye  alone,  the  iris  contracts,  but  the  iris 
of  the  other  eye  moves  after  a  measurable  interval  of 
time.  The  iris  likewise  moves  in  accommodation  to 
near  or  distant  vision,  and  when  the  two  eyes  are  made 
to  converge.23  Every  one  knows  how  irresistibly  the 
eyebrows  are  drawn  down  under  an  intensely  bright 
light.  The  eyelids  also  involuntarily  wink  when  an 
object  is  moved  near  the  eyes,  or  a  sound  is  suddenly 
heard.  The  well-known  case  of  a  bright  light  causing 
some  persons  to  sneeze  is  even  more  curious ;  for  nerve- 
force  here  radiates  from  certain  nerve-cells  in  con- 
nection with  the  retina,  to  the  sensory  nerve-cells  of 
the  nose,  causing  it  to  tickle;  and  from  these,  to  the 
cells  which  command  the  various  respiratory  muscles 
(the  orbiculars  included)  which  expel  the  air  in  so 
peculiar  a  manner  that  it  rushes  through  the  nostrils 
alone. 

To  return  to  our  point :  why  are  tears  secreted  during 
a  screaming-fit  or  other  violent  expiratory  efforts  ?  As 
a  slight  blow  on  the  eyelids  causes  a  copious  secretion 
of  tears,  it  is  at  least  possible  that  the  spasmodic  con- 
traction of  the  eyelids,  by  pressing  strongly  on  the 
eyeball,  should  in  a  similar  manner  cause  some  secre- 


23  See,  on  these  several  points,  Prof.  Bonders  '  On  the  Anomalies  of 
Accommodation  and  Kefraction  of  the  Eye,'  1864,  p.  573. 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  173 

tion.  This  seems  possible,  although  the  voltmtaiy  con- 
traction of  the  same  muscles  does  not  produce  any  such 
effect.  We  know  that  a  man  cannot  voluntarily  sneeze 
or  cough  with  nearly  the  same  force  as  he  does  auto- 
matically ;  and  so  it  is  with  the  contraction  of  the 
orbicular  muscles :  Sir  C.  Bell  experimented  on  them, 
and  found  that  by  suddenly  and  forcibly  closing 
the  eyelids  in  the  dark,  sparks  of  light  are  seen,  like 
those  caused  by  tapping  the  eyelids  with  the  fingers ; 
"  but  in  sneezing  the  compression  is  both  more  rapid 
"  and  more  forcible,  and  the  sparks  are  more  brilliant." 
That  these  sparks  are  due  to  the  contraction  of  the 
eyelids  is  clear,  because  if  they  "  are  held  open  during 
"  the  act  of  sneezing,  no  sensation  of  light  will  be 
"  experienced."  In  the  peculiar  cases  referred  to  by 
Professor  Donders  and  Mr.  Bowman,  we  have  seen 
that  some  weeks  after  the  eye  has  been  very  slightly 
injured,  spasmodic  contractions  of  the  eyelids  ensue, 
and  these  are  accompanied  by  a  profuse  flow  of  tears. 
In  the  act  of  yawning,  the  tears  are  apparently  due 
solely  to  the  spasmodic  contraction  of  the  muscles 
round  the  eyes.  Notwithstanding  these  latter  cases, 
it  seems  hardly  credible  that  the  pressure  of  the  eyelids 
on  the  surface  of  the  eye,  although  effected  spasmodi- 
cally and  therefore  with  much  greater  force  than  can 
be  done  voluntarily,  should  be  sufficient  to  cause 
by  reflex  action  the  secretion  of  tears  in  the  man) 
cases  in  which  this  occurs  during  violent  expiratory 
efforts. 

Another  cause  may  come  conjointly  into  play.  We 
have  seen  that  the  internal  parts  of  the  eye,  under 
certain  conditions,  act  in  a  reflex  manner  on  the 
lacrymal  glands.  We  know  that  during  violent 
expiratory  efforts  the  pressure  of  the  arterial  blood 
within  the  vessels  of  the  eye  is  increased,  and  that  the 


174:  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING  :  CHAP.  VI. 

return  of  the  venous  blood  is  impeded.  It  seems,  there- 
fore, not  improbable  that  the  distension  of  the  ocular 
vessels,  thus  induced,  might  act  by  reflection  on  the 
lacrymal  glands — the  effects  due  to  the  spasmodic 
pressure  of  the  eyelids  on  the  surface  of  the  eye  being 
thus  increased. 

In  considering  how  far  this  view  is  probable,  we 
should  bear  in  mind  that  the  eyes  of  infants  have 
been  acted  on  in  this  double  manner  during  numberless 
generations,  whenever  they  have  screamed ;  and  on  the 
principle  of  nerve-force  readily  passing  along  accus- 
tomed channels,  even  a  moderate  compression  of  the 
eyeballs  and  a  moderate  distension  of  the  ocular  vessels 
would  ultimately  come,  through  habit,  to  act  on  the 
glands.  We  have  an  analogous  case  in  the  orbicular 
muscles  being  almost  always  contracted  in  some  slight 
degree,  even  during  a  gentle  crying-fit,  when  there  can 
be  no  distension  of  the  vessels  and  no  uncomfortable 
sensation  excited  within  the  eyes. 

Moreover,  when  complex  actions  or  movements  have 
long  been  performed  in  strict  association  together,  and 
these  are  from  any  cause  at  first  voluntarily  and  after- 
wards habitually  checked,  then  if  the  proper  exciting 
conditions  occur,  any  part  of  the  action  or  movement 
which  is  least  under  the  control  of  the  will,  will  often 
still  be  involuntarily  performed.  The  secretion  by  a 
gland  is  remarkably  free  from  the  influence  of  the  will ; 
therefore,  when  with  the  advancing  age  of  the  indi- 
vidual, or  with  the  advancing  culture  of  the  race,  the 
habit  of  crying  out  or  screaming  is  restrained,  and  there 
is  consequently  no  distension  of  the  blood-vessels  of  the 
eye,  it  may  nevertheless  well  happen  that  tears  should 
still  be  secreted.  We  may  see,  as  lately  remarked,  the 
muscles  round  the  eyes  of  a  person  who  reads  a  pathetic 
story,  twitching  or  trembling  in  so  slight  a  degree  as 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  175 

hardly  to  be  detected.  In  this  case  there  has  been  no 
screaming  and  no  distension  of  the  blood-vessels,  yet 
through  habit  certain  nerve-cells  send  a  small  amount 
of  ner\7e-force  to  the  cells  commanding  the  muscles 
round  the  eyes ;  and  they  likewise  send  some  to  the  cells 
commanding  the  lacrymal  glands,  for  the  eyes  often 
become  at  the  same  time  just  moistened  with  tears. 
If  the  twitching  of  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  and  the 
secretion  of  tears  had  been  completely  prevented,  never- 
theless it  is  almost  certain  that  there  would  have  been 
some  tendency  to  transmit  nerve-force  in  these  same 
directions ;  and  as  the  lacrymal  glands  are  remarkably 
free  from  the  control  of  the  will,  they  would  be  emi- 
nently liable  still  to  act,  thus  betraying,  though  there 
were  no  other  outward  signs,  the  pathetic  thoughts 
which  were  passing  through  the  person's  mind. 

As  a  further  illustration  of  the  view  here  advanced,  I 
may  remark  that  if,  during  an  early  period  of  life,  when 
habits  of  all  kinds  are  readily  established,  our  infants, 
when  pleased,  had  been  accustomed  to  utter  loud  peals 
of  laughter  (during  which  the  vessels  of  their  eyes  are 
distended)  as  often  and  as  continuously  as  they  have 
yielded  when  distressed  to  screaming-fits,  then  it  is 
probable  that  in  after  life  tears  would  have  been  as 
copiously  and  as  regularly  secreted  under  the  one 
state  of  mind  as  under  the  other.  Gentle  laughter, 
or  a  smile,  or  even  a  pleasing  thought,  would  have 
sufficed  to  cause  a  moderate  secretion  of  tears.  There 
does  indeed  exist  an  evident  tendency  in  this  direction, 
as  will  be  seen  in  a  future  chapter,  when  we  treat  of 
the  tender  feelings.  With  the  Sandwich  Islanders, 
according  to  Freycinet,2*  tears  are  actually  recog- 
nized as  a  sign  of  happiness;  but  we  should  require 


Quoted  by  Sir  J.  Lubbock, '  Prehistoric  Times,'  1865,  p.  458. 


176  EXPRESSION    OF   SUFFERING:  CHAP.  VI. 

better  evidence  on  this  head  than  that  of  a  passing 
voyager.  So  again  if  our  infants,  during  many  genera- 
tions, and  each  of  them  during  several  years,  had  almost 
daily  suffered  from  prolonged  choking-fits,  during  which 
the  vessels  of  the  eye  are  distended  and  tears  copiously 
secreted,  then  it  is  probable,  such  is  the  force  of  asso- 
ciated habit,  that  during  after  life  the  mere  thought  of 
a  choke,  without  any  distress  of  mind,  would  have 
sufficed  to  bring  tears  into  our  eyes. 

To  sum  up  this  chapter,  weeping  is  probably  the 
result  of  some  such  chain  of  events  as  follows.  Children, 
when  wanting  food  or  suffering  in  any  way,  cry  out 
loudly,  like  the  young  of  most  other  animals,  partly  as  a 
call  to  their  parents  for  aid,  and  partly  from  any  great 
exertion  serving  as  a  relief.  Prolonged  screaming  in- 
evitably leads  to  the  gorging  of  the  blood-vessels  of 
the  eye;  and  this  will  have  led,  at  first  consciously 
and  at  last  habitually,  to  the  contraction  of  the  muscles 
round  the  eyes  in  order  to  protect  them.  At  the 
same  time  the  spasmodic  pressure  on  the  surface  of  the 
eye,  and  the  distension  of  the  vessels  within  the  eye, 
without  necessarily  entailing  any  conscious  sensation, 
will  have  affected,  through  reflex  action,  the  lacry- 
mal  glands.  Finally,  through  the  three  principles  of 
nerve-force  readily  passing  along  accustomed  channels 
— of  association,  which  is  so  widely  extended  in  its 
power — and  of  certain  actions,  being  more  under  the 
control  of  the  will  than  others — it  has  come  to  pass 
that  suffering  readily  causes  the  secretion  of  tears, 
without  being  necessarily  accompanied  by  any  other 
action. 

Although  in  accordance  with  this  view  we  must  look 
at  weeping  as  an  incidental  result,  as  purposeless  as 
the  secretion  of  tears  from  a  blow  outside  the  eye, 
or  as  a  sneeze  from  the  retina  being  affected  by  a 


CHAP.  VI.  WEEPING.  ]  77 

bright  light,  yet  this  does  not  present  any  difficulty 
in  our  understanding  how  the  secretion  of  tears  serves 
as  a  relief  to  suffering.  And  by  as  much  as  the 
weeping  is  more  violent  or  hysterical,  by  so  much  will 
the  relief  be  greater, — on  the  same  principle  that  the 
writhing  of  the  whole  body,  the  grinding  of  the  teeth, 
and  the  uttering  of  piercing  shrieks,  all  give  relief 
under  an  agony  of  pain. 


178  EXPRESSION  OF  GRIEF:  CHAP.  VII 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Low  SPIRITS,  ANXIETY,  GKIEF,  DEJECTION,  DESPAIE. 

General  effect  of  grief  on  the  system  —  Obliquity  of  the  eyebrows 
under  suffering  —  On  the  cause  of  the  obliquity  of  the  eyebrows 
— On  the  depression  of  the  corners  of  the  mouth. 

AFTER  the  mind  has  suffered  from  an  acute  paroxysm  of 
grief,  and  the  cause  still  continues,  we  fall  into  a  state 
of  low  spirits ;  or  we  may  be  utterly  cast  down  and 
dejected.  Prolonged  bodily  pain,  if  not  amounting  to 
an  agony,  generally  leads  to  the  same  state  of  mind. 
If  we  expect  to  suffer,  we  are  anxious ;  if  we  have  no 
hope  of  relief,  we  despair. 

Persons  suffering  from  excessive  grief  often  seek  relief 
by  violent  and  almost  frantic  movements,  as  described 
in  a  former  chapter ;  but  when  their  suffering  is  some- 
what mitigated,  yet  prolonged,  they  no  longer  wish 
for  action,  but  remain  motionless  and  passive,  or  may 
occasionally  rock  themselves  to  and  fro.  The  circula- 
tion becomes  languid ;  the  face  pale  ;  the  muscles  flaccid ; 
the  eyelids  droop;  the  head  hangs  on  the  contracted 
chest ;  the  lips,  cheeks,  and  lower  jaw  all  sink  down- 
wards from  their  own  weight.  Hence  all  the  features 
are  lengthened ;  and  the  face  of  a  person  who  hears  bad 
news  is  said  to  fall.  A  party  of  natives  in  Tierra  del 
Fuego  endeavoured  to  explain  to  us  that  their  friend, 
the  captain  of  a  sealing  vessel,  was  out  of  spirits,  by 
pulling  down  their  cheeks  with  both  hands,  so  as  to 
make  their  faces  as  long  as  possible.  Mr.  Bunnet 
informs  me  that  the  Australian  aborigines  when  out  of 


CHAP.  VII.  OBLIQUE   EYEBROWS.  170 

spirits  have  a  chop-fallen  appearance.  After  prolonged 
suffering  the  eyes  become  dull  and  lack  expression, 
and  are  often  slightly  suffused  with  tears.  The  eye- 
brows not  rarely  are  rendered  oblique,  which  is  due 
to  their  inner  ends  being  raised.  This  produces  pecu- 
liarly-formed wrinkles  on  the  forehead,  which  are  very 
different  from  those  of  a  simple  frown  ;  though  in  some 
cases  a  frown  alone  may  be  present.  The  corners  of  the 
mouth  are  drawn  downwards,  which  is  so  universally 
recognised  as  a  sign  of  being  out  of  spirits,  that  it  is 
almost  proverbial. 

The  breathing  becomes  slow  and  feeble,  and  is  often 
interrupted  by  deep  sighs.  As  Gratiolet  remarks, 
whenever  our  attention  is  long  concentrated  on  any 
subject,  we  forget  to  breathe,  and  then  relieve  ourselves 
by  a  deep  inspiration ;  but  the  sighs  of  a  sorrowful  per- 
son, owing  to  his  slow  respiration  and  languid  circula- 
tion, are  eminently  characteristic.1  As  the  grief  of  a 
person  in  this  state  occasionally  recurs  and  increases 
into  a  paroxysm,  spasms  affect  the  respiratory  muscles, 
and  he  feels  as  if  something,  the  so-called  globus 
liystericus,  was  rising  in  his  throat.  These  spasmodic 
movements  are  clearly  allied  to  the  sobbing  of  children, 
and  are  remnants  of  those  severer  spasms  which  occur 
when  a  person  is  said  to  choke  from  excessive  grief.2 

Obliquity  of  the  eyebrows. — Two  points  alone  in  the 
above  description  require  further  elucidation,  and  these 
are  very  curious  ones  ;  namely,  the  raising  of  the  inner 

1  The  above  descriptive  remarks  are  taken  in  part  from  my  own 
observations,  but  chiefly  from  Gratiolet  ('  De  la  Physionomie,'  pp.  58, 
337  ;  on  Sighing,  232),  who  has  well  treated  this  whole  subject.     See, 
also,  Huschke,    '  Mimices  et   Physiogriomices,  Fragmentum  Physio- 
logicum,'  1821,  p.  21.    On  the  dulness  of  the  eyes,  Dr.  Piderit,  *  Miuiik 
und  Physiognomik,'  1867,  s.  65. 

2  On  the  action  of  grief  on  the  organs  of  respiration,  see  more  espe- 
cially Sir  C.  Bell,  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  3rd  edit.  1844,  p.  151. 


180  EXPRESSION   OF  GRIEF :  CHAP.  VII. 

ends  of  the  eyebrows,  and  the  drawing  down  of  the 
corners  of  the  mouth.  With  respect  to  the  eyebrows, 
they  may  occasionally  be  seen  to  assume  an  oblique 
position  in  persons  suffering  from  deep  dejection  or 
anxiety;  for  instance,  I  have  observed  this  movement 
in  a  mother  whilst  speaking  about -her  sick  son;  and 
it  is  sometimes  excited  by  quite  trifling  or  momentary 
causes  of  real  or  pretended  distress.  The  eyebrows 
assume  this  position  owing  to  the  contraction  of  certain 
muscles  (namely,  the  orbiculars,  corrugators,  and  pyra- 
midals  of  the  nose,  which  together  tend  to  lower  and 
contract  the  eyebrows)  being  partially  checked  by  the 
more  powerful  action  of  the  central  fasciae  of  the  frontal 
inuscle.  These  latter  fasciae  by  their  contraction  raise 
the  inner  ends  alone  of  the  eyebrows  ;  and  as  the  corru- 
gators at  the  same  time  draw  the  eyebrows  together,  their 
inner  ends  become  puckered  into  a  fold  or  lump.  This 
fold  is  a  highly  characteristic  point  in  the  appearance  of 
the  eyebrows  when  rendered  oblique,  as  may  be  seen  in 
figs.  2  and  5,  Plate  II.  The  eyebrows  are  at  the  same 
time  somewhat  roughened,  owing  to  the  hairs  being  made 
to  project.  Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne  has  also  often  noticed 
in  melancholic  patients  who  keep  their  eyebrows  per- 
sistently oblique,  "  a  peculiar  acute  arching  of  the  upper 
eyelid."  A  trace  of  this  may  be  observed  by  comparing 
the  right  and  left  eyelids  of  the  young  man  in  the 
photograph  (fig.  2,  Plate  II.)  ;  for  he  was  not  able  to  act 
equally  on  both  eyebrows.  This  is  also  shown  by  the 
unequal  furrows  on  the  two  sides  of  his  forehead.  The 
acute  arching  of  the  eyelids  depends,  I  believe,  on  the 
inner  end  alone  of  the  eyebrows  being  raised  ;  for  when 
the  whole  eyebrow  is  elevated  and  arched,  the  upper 
eyelid  follows  in  a  slight  degree  the  same  movement. 

But  the  most  conspicuous  result  of  the  opposed  con- 
traction of  the  above-named  muscles,  is  exhibited  by  the 


CHAP.  VII.  OBLIQUE   EYEBROWS.  181 

peculiar  furrows  formed  on  the  forehead.  These  muscles, 
when  thus  in  conjoint  yet  opposed  action,  may  be  called, 
for  the  sake  of  brevity,  the  grief-muscles.  When  a 
person  elevates  his  eyebrows  by  the  contraction  of  the 
whole  frontal  muscle,  transverse  wrinkles  extend  across 
the  whole  breadth  of  the  forehead ;  but  in  the  present 
case  the  middle  fasciae  alone  are  contracted;  conse- 
quently, transverse  furrows  are  formed  across  the  middle 
part  alone  of  the  forehead.  The  skin  over  the  exterior 
parts  of  both  eyebrows  is  at  the  same  time  drawn  down- 
wards and  smoothed,  by  the  contraction  of  the  outer  por- 
tions of  the  orbicular  muscles.  The  eyebrows  are  likewise 
brought  together  through  the  simultaneous  contraction 
of  the  corrugators;3  and  this  latter  action  generates 

8  In  the  foregoing  remarks  on  the  manner  in  which  the  eyebrows 
are  made  oblique,  I  have  followed  what  seems  to  be  the  universal 
opinion  of  all  the  anatomists,  whose  works  I  have  consulted  on  the 
action  of  the  above-named  muscles,  or  with  whom  I  have  conversed. 
Hence  throughout  this  work  I  shall  take  a  similar  view  of  the  action 
of  the  corrugator  supercilii,  orbicularis,  pyramidalis  nasi,  and  frontalis 
muscles.  Dr.  Duchenne,  however,  believes,  and  every  conclusion  at 
which  he  arrives  deserves  serious  consideration,  that  it  is  the  corrugator, 
called  by  him  the  sourcilier,  which  raises  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye- 
brows and  is  antagonistic  to  the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  orbicular 
muscle,  as  well  as  to  the  pyramidalis  nasi  (see  Me'canisme  de  la  Phys. 
Humaine,  1862,  folio,  art.  v.,  text  and  figures  19  to  29 :  octavo  edit.  1862, 
p.  43  text).  He  admits,  however,  that  the  corrugator  draws  together 
the  eyebrows,  causing  vertical  furrows  above  the  base  of  the  nose,  or  a 
frown.  He  further  believes  that  towards  the  outer  two-thirds  of  the 
eyebrow  the  corrugator  acts  in  conjunction  with  the  upper  orbicular 
muscle ;  both  here  standing  in  antagonism  to  the  frontal  muscle.  I 
am  unable  to  understand,  judging  from  Henle's  drawings  (woodcut, 
fig.  3),  how  the  corrugator  can  act  in  the  manner  described  by 
Duchenne.  See,  also,  on  this  subject,  Prof.  Donders'  remarks  in  the 
'Archives  of  Medicine,'  1870,  vol.  v.  p.  34.  Mr.  J.  Wood,  who  is 
so  well  known  for  his  careful  study  of  the  muscles  of  the  human  frame, 
informs  me  that  he  believes  the  account  which  I  have  given  of  the 
action  of  the  corrugator  to  be  correct.  But  this  is  not  a  point  of  any 
importance  with  respect  to  the  expression  which  is  caused  by  the 
obliquity  of  the  eyebrows,  nor  of  much  importance  to  the  theory  of  its 
origin. 


182  EXPEESSION  OF  GRIEF:  CHAP. VII. 

vertical  furrows,  separating  the  exterior  and  lowered 
part  of  the  skin  of  the  forehead  from  the  central  and 
raised  part.  The  union  of  these  vertical  furrows  with 
the  central  and  transverse  furrows  (see  figs.  2  and  3) 
produces  a  mark  on  the  forehead  which  has  been  com- 
pared to  a  horse-shoe;  but  the  furrows  more  strictly 
form  three  sides  of  a  quadrangle.  They  are  often  con- 
spicuous on  the  foreheads  of  adult  or  nearly  adult  persons, 
when  their  eyebrows  are  made  oblique ;  but  with  young 
children,  owing  to  their  skin  not  easily  wrinkling,  they 
are  rarely  seen,  or  mere  traces  of  them  can  be  detected. 
These  peculiar  furrows  are  best  represented  in  fig.  3, 
Plate  II.,  on  the  forehead  of  a  young  lady  who  has  the 
power  in  an  unusual  degree  of  voluntarily  acting  on 
the  requisite  muscles.  As  she  was  absorbed  in  the 
attempt,  whilst  being  photographed,  her  expression  was 
not  at  all  one  of  grief;  I  have  therefore  given  the  fore- 
head alone.  Fig.  1  on  the  same  plate,  copied  from  Dr. 
Duchenne's  work,4  represents,  on  a  reduced  scale,  the 
face,  in  its  natural  state,  of  a  young  .man  who  was  a 
good  actor.  In  fig.  2  he  is  shown  simulating  grief,  but 
the  two  eyebrows,  as  before  remarked,  are  not  equally 
acted  on.  That  the  expression  is  true,  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  out  of  fifteen  persons,  to  whom  the 
original  photograph  was  shown,  without  any  clue  to  what 
was  intended  being  given  them,  fourteen  immediately 
answered,  "  despairing  sorrow,"  "  suffering  endurance," 
"  melancholy,"  and  so  forth.  The  history  of  fig.  5  is 
rather  curious :  I  saw  the  photograph  in  a  shop-window, 
and  took  it  to  Mr.  Rejlander  for  the  sake  of  findin^  out 


4  I  am  greatly  indebted  to  Dr.  Duchenne  for  permission  to  have 
these  two  photographs  (figs.  1  and  2)  reproduced  by  the  heliotype  pro- 
cess from  his  work  in  folio.  Many  of  the  foregoing  remarks  on  the 
furrowing  of  the  skin,  when  the  eyebrows  are  rendered  oblique,  are 
taken  from  his  excellent  discussion  on  this  subject. 


CHAP.  VII.  OBLIQUE   EYEBROWS.  183 

by  whom  it  had  been  made ;  remarking  to  him  how 
pathetic  the  expression  was.  He  answered,  "  I  made  it, 
"  and  it  was  likely  to  be  pathetic,  for  the  boy  in  a  few 
"  minutes  burst  out  crying."  He  then  showed  me  a 
photograph  of  the  same  boy  in  a  placid  state,  which 
I  have  had  (fig.  4)  reproduced.  In  fig.  6,  a  trace  of 
obliquity  in  the  eyebrows  may  be  detected  ;  but  this 
figure,  as  well  as  fig.  7,  is  given  to  show  the  depression 
of  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  to  which  subject  I  shall  pre- 
sently refer. 

Few  persons,  without  some  practice,  can  voluntarily 
act  on  their  grief-muscles ;  but  after  repeated  trials  a  con- 
siderable number  succeed,  whilst  others  never  can.  The 
degree  of  obliquity  in  the  eyebrows,  whether  assumed 
voluntarily  or  unconsciously,  differs  much  in  different 
persons.  With  some  who  apparently  have  unusually 
strong  pyramidal  muscles,  the  contraction  of  the  central 
fascia?  of  the  frontal  muscle,  although  it  may  be  ener- 
getic, as  shown  by  the  quadrangular  furrows  on  the  fore- 
head, does  not  raise  the  inner  ends  of  the  eyebrows,  but 
only  prevents  their  being  so  much  lowered  as  they 
otherwise  would  have  been.  As  far  as  I  have  been 
able  to  observe,  the  grief-muscles  are  brought  into  action 
much  more  frequently  by  children  and  women  than  by 
men.  They  are  rarely  acted  on,  at  least  with  grown-up 
persons,  from  bodily  pain,  but  almost  exclusively  from 
mental  distress.  Two  persons  who,  after  some  practice, 
succeeded  in  acting  on  their  grief-muscles,  found  by 
looking  at  a  mirror  that  when  they  made  their  eyebrows 
oblique,  they  unintentionally  at  the  same  time  depressed 
the  corners  of  their  mouths ;  and  this  is  often  the  case 
when  the  expression  is  naturally  assumed. 

The  power  to  bring  the  grief-muscles  freely  into  play 
appears  to  be  hereditary,  like  almost  every  other  human 
faculty.  A  lady  belonging  to  a  family  famous  for 


184  EXPKESSION  OF   GRIEF  I  CHAP.  VII. 

having  produced  an  extraordinary  number  of  great 
actors  and  actresses,  and  who  can  herself  give  this 
expression  "  with  singular  precision,"  told  Dr.  Crichton 
Browne  that  all  her  family  had  possessed  the  power  in  a 
remarkable  degree.  The  same  hereditary  tendency  is 
said  to  have  extended,  as  I  likewise  hear  from  Dr. 
Browne,  to  the  last  descendant  of  the  family,  which 
gave  rise  to  Sir  Walter  Scott's  novel  of  '  Ked  Gauntlet ;' 
but  the  hero  is  described  as  contracting  his  forehead 
into  a  horse-shoe  mark  from  any  strong  emotion.  I 
have  also  seen  a  young  woman  whose  forehead  seemed 
almost  habitually  thus  contracted,  independently  of  any 
emotion  being  at  the  time  felt. 

The  grief-muscles  are  not  very  frequently  brought 
into  play;  and  as  the  action  is  often  momentary, 
it  easily  escapes  observation.  Although  the  expres- 
sion, when  observed,  is  universally  and  instantly  re- 
cognized as  that  of  grief  or  anxiety,  yet  not  one  person 
out  of  a  thousand  who  has  never  studied  the  subject, 
is  able  to  say  precisely  what  change  passes  over 
the  sufferer's  face.  Hence  probably  it  is  that  this 
expression  is  not  even  alluded  to,  as  far  as  I  have 
noticed,  in  any  work  of  fiction,  with  the  exception  of 
'  Eed  Gauntlet '  and  of  one  other  novel ;  and  the 
authoress  of  the  latter,  as  I  am  informed,  belongs  to 
the  famous  family  of  actors  just  alluded  to ;  so  that  her 
attention  may  have  been  specially  called  to  the  subject. 

The  ancient  Greek  sculptors  were  familiar  with  the 
expression,  as  shown  in  the  statues  of  the  Laocoon  and 
Arretino ;  but,  as  Duchenne  remarks,  they  carried 
the  transverse  furrows  across  the  whole  breadth  of  the 
forehead,  and  thus  committed  a  great  anatomical  mis- 
take :  this  is  likewise  the  case  in  some  modern  statues. 
It  is,  however,  more  probable  that  these  wonderfully 
accurate  observers  intentionally  sacrificed  truth  for  the 


CHAP.  VII.  OBLIQUE   EYEBROWS.  185 

sake  of  beauty,  than  that  they  made  a  mistake  ;  for 
rectangular  furrows  on  the  forehead  would  not  have 
had  a  grand  appearance  on  the  marble.  The  expres- 
sion, in  its  fully  developed  condition,  is,  as  far  as  I  can 
discover,  not  often  represented  in  pictures  by  the  old 
masters,  no  doubt  owing  to  the  same  cause ;  but  a 
lady  who  is  perfectly  familiar  with  this  expression, 
informs  me  that  in  Fra  Angelico's  '  Descent  from  the 
Cross/  in  Florence,  it  is  clearly  exhibited  in  one  of 
the  figures  on  the  right-hand ;  and  I  could  add  a  few 
other  instances. 

Dr.  Crichton  Browne,  at  my  request,  closely  attended 
to  this  expression  in  the  numerous  insane  patients 
under  his  care  in  the  West  Biding  Asylum;  and  he 
is  familiar  with  Duchenne's  photographs  of  the  action 
of  the  grief-muscles.  He  informs  me  that  they  may 
constantly  be  seen  in  energetic  action  in  cases  of  melan- 
cholia, and  especially  of  hypochondria ;  and  that  the 
persistent  lines  or  furrows,  due  to  their  habitual  con- 
traction, are  characteristic  of  the  physiognomy  of  the 
insane  belonging  to  these  two  classes.  Dr.  Browne 
carefully  observed  for  me  during  a  considerable  period 
three  cases  of  hypochondria,  in  which  the  grief-muscles 
were  persistently  contracted.  In  one  of  these,  a  widow, 
aged  51,  fancied  that  she  had  lost  all  her  viscera,  and 
that  her  whole  body  was  empty.  She  wore  an  expres- 
sion of  great  distress,  and  beat  her  semi-closed  hands 
rhythmically  together  for  hours.  The  grief-muscles  were 
permanently  contracted,  and  the  upper  eyelids  arched. 
This  condition  lasted  for  months ;  she  then  recovered, 
and  her  countenance  resumed  its  natural  expression. 
A  second  case  presented  nearly  the  same  peculiarities, 
with  the  addition  that  the  corners  of  the  mouth  were 
depressed. 

Mr.  Patrick  Nicol  has  also  kindly  observe  1  for  me 

9 


186  EXPRESSION   OF  GRIEF  :  CHAP.  VII. 

several  cases  in  the  Sussex  Lunatic  Asylum,  and  has 
communicated  to  me  full  details  with  respect  to  three 
of  them  ;  but  they  need  not  here  be  given.  From  his 
observations  on  melancholic  patients,  Mr.  JsTicol  con- 
cludes that  the  inner  ends  of  the  eyebrows  are  almost 
always  more  or  less  raised,  with  the  wr.'nkles  on  the 
forehead  more  or  less  plainly  marked.  In  the  case  of 
one  young  woman,  these  wrinkles  were  observed  to  be 
in  constant  slight  play  or  movement.  In  some  cases 
the  corners  of  the  mouth  are  depressed,  but  often  only 
in  a  slight  degree.  Some  amount  of  difference  in  the 
expression  of  the  several  melancholic  patients  could 
almost  always  be  observed.  The  eyelids  generally 
droop ;  and  the  skin  near  their  outer  corners  and 
beneath  them  is  wrinkled.  The  naso-labial  fold,  which 
runs  from  the  wings  of  the  nostrils  to  the  corners  of 
the  mouth,  and  which  is  so  conspicuous  in  blubbering 
children,  is  often  plainly  marked  in  these  patients. 

Although  with  the  insane  the  grief-muscles  often  act 
persistently ;  yet  in  ordinary  cases  they  are  sometimes 
brought  unconsciously  into  momentary  action  by  ludi- 
crously slight  causes.  A  gentleman  rewarded  a  young 
lady  by  an  absurdly  small  present ;  she  pretended  to 
be  offended,  and  as  she  upbraide4  him,  her  eyebrows 
became  extremely  oblique,  with  the  forehead  properly 
wrinkled.  Another  young  lady  and  a  youth,  both  in 
the  highest  spirits,  were  eagerly  talking  together  with 
extraordinary  rapidity  ;  and  I  noticed  that,  as  often 
as  the  young  lady  was  beaten,  and  could  not  get  out 
her  words  fast  enough,  her  eyebrows  went  obliquely 
upwards,  and  rectangular  furrows  were  formed  on  her 
forehead.  She  thus  each  time  hoisted  a  flag  of  dis- 
tress ;  and  this  she  did  half-a-dozen  times  in  the  course 
of  a  few  minutes.  I  made  no  remark  on  the  subject, 
but  on  a  subsequent  occasion  I  asked  her  to  act 


CHAP.  VII.  OBLIQUE  EYEBROWS.  187 

on  her  grief-muscles ;  another  girl  who  was  present, 
and  who  could  do  so  voluntarily,  showing  her  what 
was  intended.  She  tried  repeatedly,  but  utterly 
failed  ;  yet  so  slight  a  cause  of  distress  as  not  being 
able  to  talk  quickly  enough,  sufficed  to  bring-  these 
muscles  over  and  over  again  into  energetic  action. 

The  expression  of  grief,  due  to  the  contraction  of  the 
grief-muscles,  is  by  no  means  confined  to  Europeans, 
but  appears  to  be  common  to  all  the  races  of  mankind. 
I  have,  at  least,  received  trustworthy  accounts  in  re- 
gard to  Hindoos,  Dhangars  (one  of  the  aboriginal 
hill-tribes  of  India,  and  therefore  belonging  to  a  quite 
distinct  race  from  the  Hindoos),  Malays,  Negroes  and 
Australians.  With  respect  to  the  latter,  two  observers 
answer  my  query  in  the  affirmative,  but  enter  into 
no  details.  Mr.  Taplin,  however,  appends  to  my  de- 
scriptive remarks  the  words  "this  is  exact."  With 
respect  to  negroes,  the  lady  who  told  me  of  Fra 
Angelico's  picture,  saw  a  negro  towing  a  boat  on  the 
Nile,  arid  as  he  encountered  an  obstruction,  she  observed 
his  grief-muscles  in  strong  action,  with  the  middle 
of  the  forehead  well  wrinkled.  Mr.  Geach  watched 
a  Malay  man  in  Malacca,  with  the  corners  of  his 
mouth  much  depressed,  the  eyebrows  oblique,  with 
deep  short  grooves  on  the  forehead.  This  expression 
lasted  for  a  very  short  time ;  and  Mr.  Geach  remarks 
it  "  was  a  strange  one,  very  much  like  a  person  about 
"  to  cry  at  some  great  loss." 

In  India  Mr.  H.  Erskine  found  that  the  natives 
were  familiar  with  this  expression;  and  Mr.  J. 
Scott,  of  the  Botanic  Gardens,  Calcutta,  has  obli- 
gingly sent  me  a  full  description  of  two  cases.  He 
observed  during  some  time,  himself  unseen,  a  very 
young  Dhangar  woman  from  Nagpore,  the  wife  of 
one  of  the  gardeners,  nursing  her  baby  who  was  at 


188  EXPRESSION  OF  GRIEF  :  CHAP.  VII. 

the  point  of  death ;  and  he  distinctly  saw  the  eye- 
brows raised  at  the  inner  corners,  the  eyelids  drooping, 
the  forehead  wrinkled  in  the  middle,  the  mouth  slightly 
open,  with  the  corners  much  depressed.  He  then  came 
from  behind  a  screen  of  plants  and  spoke  to  the  poor 
woman,  who  started,  burst  into  a  bitter  flood  of  tears, 
and  besought  him  to  cure  her  baby.  The  second  case 
was  that  of  a  Hindustani  man,  who  from  illness  and 
poverty  was  compelled  to  sell  his  favourite  goat.  After 
receiving  the  money,  he  repeatedly  looked  at  the  money 
in  his  hand  and  then  at  the  goat,  as  if  doubting  whether 
he  would  not  return  it.  He  went  to  the  goat,  which  was 
tied  up  ready  to  be  led  away,  and  the  animal  reared  up 
and  licked  his  hands.  His  eyes  then  wavered  from 
side  to  side ;  his  "mouth  was  partially  closed,  with  the 
"  corners  very  decidedly  depressed."  At  last  the  poor 
man  seemed  to  make  up  his  mind  that  he  must  part 
with  his  goat,  and  then,  as  Mr.  Scott  saw,  the  eyebrows 
became  slightly  oblique,  with  the  characteristic  puck- 
ering or  swelling  at  the  inner  ends,  but  the  wrinkles 
on  the  forehead  were  not  present.  The  man  stood  thus 
for  a  minute,  then  heaving  a  deep  sigh,  burst  into  tears, 
raised  up  his  two  hands,  blessed  the  goat,  turned  round, 
and  without  looking  again,  went  away. 

On  the  cause  of  the  obliquity  of  the  eyebrows  under 
suffering. — During  several  years  no  expression  seemed 
to  me  so  utterly  perplexing  as  this  which  we  are  here 
considering.  Why  should  grief  or  anxiety  cause  the 
central  fascia3  alone  of  the  frontal  muscle  together 
with  those  round  the  eyes,  to  contract  ?  Here  we  seem 
to  have  a  complex  movement  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
expressing  grief;  and  yet  it  is  a  comparatively  rare 
expression,  and  often  overlooked.  I  believe  the  expla- 
nation is  not  so  difficult  as  it  at  first  appears.  Dr. 
Duchenne  gives  a  photograph  of  the  young  man  before 


CHAP.  VII.  OBLIQUE   EYEBROWS.  189 

referred  to,  who,  when  looking  upwards  at  a  strongly 
illuminated  surface,  involuntarily  contracted  his  grief- 
muscles  in  an  exaggerated  manner.  I  had  entirely  for- 
gotten this  photograph,  when  on  a  very  bright  day  with 
the  sun  behind  me,  I  met,  whilst  on  horseback,  a  girl 
whose  eyebrows,  as  she  looked  up  at  me,  became  ex- 
tremely oblique,  with  the  proper  furrows  on  her  forehead. 
I  have  observed  the  same  movement  under  similar  cir- 
cumstances on  several  subsequent  occasions.  On  my 
return  home  I  made  three  of  my  children,  without 
giving  them  any  clue  to  my  object,  look  as  long  and 
as  attentively  as  they  could,  at  the  summit  of  a  tall 
tree  standing  against  an  extremely  bright  sky.  With 
all  three,  the  orbicular,  corrugator,  and  pyramidal 
muscles  were  energetically  contracted,  through  reflex 
action,  from  the  excitement  of  the  retina,  so  that  their 
eyes  might  be  protected  from  the  bright  light.  But 
they  tried  their  utmost  to  look  upwards;  and  now  a 
curious  struggle,  with  spasmodic  twitchings,  could  be 
observed  between  the  whole  or  only  the  central  portion 
of  the  frontal  muscle,  and  the  several  muscles  which 
serve  to  lower  the  eyebrows  and  close  the  eyelids. 
The  involuntary  contraction  of  the  pyramidal  caused 
the  basal  part  of  their  noses  to  be  transversely  and 
deeply  wrinkled.  In  one  of  the  three  children,  the 
whole  eyebrows  were  momentarily  raised  and  lowered 
by  the  alternate  contraction  of  the  whole  frontal  muscle 
and  of  the  muscles  surrounding  the  eyes,  so  that  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  forehead  was  alternately  wrinkled 
and  smoothed.  In  the  other  two  children  the  forehead 
oecame  wrinkled  in  the  middle  part  alone,  rectangular 
furrows  being  thus  produced ;  and  the  eyebrows  were 
rendered  oblique,  with  their  inner  extremities  puckered 
and  swollen ; — in  the  one  child  in  a  slight  degree,  in 
the  other  in  a  strongly  marked  manner.  This  differ- 


190  EXPRESSION  OF  GRIEF  :  CHAP.  VII. 

ence  in  the  obliquity  of  the  eyebrows  apparently  de- 
pended on  a  difference  in  their  general  mobility,  and 
in  the  strength  of  the  pyramidal  muscles.  In  both 
these  cases  the  eyebrows  and  forehead  were  acted  on 
under  the  influence  of  a  strong  light,  in  precisely  the 
same  manner,  in  every  characteristic  detail,  as  under 
the  influence  of  grief  or  anxiety. 

Duchenne  states  that  the  pyramidal  muscle  of  the 
nose  is  less  under  the  control  of  the  will  than  are 
the  other  muscles  round  the  eyes.  He  remarks  that 
the  young  man  who  could  so  well  act  on  his  grief- 
muscles,  as  well  as  on  most  of  his  other  facial  mus- 
cles, could  not  contract  the  pyramidals.5  This  power, 
however,  no  doubt  differs  in  different  persons.  The 
pyramidal  muscle  serves  to  draw  down  the  skin  of  the 
forehead  between  the  eyebrows,  together  with  their 
inner  extremities.  The  central  fascia  of  the  frontal 
are  the  antagonists  of  the  pyramidal ;  and  if  the  action 
of  the  latter  is  to  be  specially  checked,  these  central 
fasciae  must  be  contracted.  So  that  with  persons 
having  powerful  pyramidal  muscles,  if  there  is  under 
the  influence  of  a  bright  light  an  unconscious  desire 
to  prevent  the  lowering  of  the  eyebrows,  the  central 
fasciaB  of  the  frontal  muscle  must  be  brought  into  play ; 
and  their  contraction,  if  sufficiently  strong  to  over- 
master the  pyramidals,  together  with  the  contraction 
of  the  corrugator  and  orbicular  muscles,  will  act  in  the 
manner  just  described  on  the  eyebrows  and  forehead. 

When  children  scream  or  cry  out,  they  contract, 
as  we  know,  the  orbicular,  corrugator,  and  pyramidal 
muscles,  primarily  for  the  sake  of  compressing  their 
eyes,  and  thus  protecting  them  from  being  gorged 
with  blood,  and  secondarily  through  habit.  I  there- 


3  Mecanisme  de  la  Phys.  Humaine,  Album,  p.  15. 


CHAP.  VII.  OBLIQUE   EYEBROWS.  191 

fore  expected  to  find  with  children,  that  when  they 
endeavoured  either  to  prevent  a  crying-fit  from  coming 
on,  or  to  stop  crying,  they  would  check  the  contraction 
of  the  above-named  muscles,  in  the  same  manner  as 
when  looking  upwards  at  a  bright  light;  and  conse- 
quently that  the  central  fasciae  of  the  frontal  muscle 
would  often  be  brought  into  play.  Accordingly,  I  began 
myself  to  observe  children  at  such  times,  and  asked 
others,  including  some  medical  men,  to  do  the  same.  It 
is  necessary  to  observe  carefully,  as  the  peculiar  opposed 
action  of  these  muscles  is  not  nearly  so  plain  in  chil- 
dren, owing  to  their  foreheads  not  easily  wrinkling,  as 
in  adults.  But  I  soon  found  that  the  grief-muscles 
were  very  frequently  brought  into  distinct  action  on 
these  occasions.  It  would  be  superfluous  to  give  all  the 
cases  which  have  been  observed  ;  and  I  will  specify 
only  a  few.  A  little  girl,  a  year  and  a  half  old,  was 
teased  by  some  other  children,  and  before  bursting 
into  tears  her  eyebrows  became  decidedly  oblique. 
With  an  older  girl  the  same  obliquity  was  observed, 
with  the  inner  ends  of  the  eyebrows  plainly  puckered ; 
and  at  the  same  time  the  corners  of  the  mouth  were 
drawn  downwards.  As  soon  as  she  burst  into  tears, 
the  features  all  changed  and  this  peculiar  expression 
vanished.  Again,  after  a  little  boy  had  been  vacci- 
nated, which  made  him  scream  and  cry  violently,  the 
surgeon  gave  him  an  orange  brought  for  the  purpose, 
and  this  pleased  the  child  much  ;  as  he  stopped  crying 
all  the  characteristic  movements  were  observed,  in- 
cluding the  formation  of  rectangular  wrinkles  in  the 
middle  of  the  forehead.  Lastly,  I  met  on  the  road  a 
little  girl  three  or  four  years  old,  who  had  been  fright- 
ened by  a  dog,  and  when  I  asked  her  what  was  the 
matter,  she  stopped  whimpering,  and  her  eyebrows  in- 
stantly became  oblique  to  an  extraordinary  degree. 


192  EXPRESSION   OF  GRIEF:  CHAP.  VII. 

Here  then,  as  I  cannot  doubt,  we  have  the  key 
to  the  problem  why  the  central  fasciae  of  the  frontal 
muscle  and  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  contract  in 
opposition  to  each  other  under  the  influence  of  grief; 
— whether  their  contraction  be  prolonged,  as  with  the 
melancholic  insane,  or  momentary,  from  some  trifling 
cause  of  distress.  We  have  all  of  us,  as  infants, 
repeatedly  contracted  our  orbicular,  corru gator,  and 
pyramidal  muscles,  in  order  to  protect  our  eyes  whilst 
screaming;  our  progenitors  before  us  have  done  the 
same  during  many  generations;  and  though  with  ad- 
vancing years  we  easily  prevent,  when  feeling  distressed, 
the  utterance  of  screams,  we  cannot  from  long  habit 
always  prevent  a  slight  contraction  of  the  above-named 
muscles;  nor  indeed  do  we  observe  their  contraction 
in  ourselves,  or  attempt  to  stop  it,  if  slight.  But  the 
pyramidal  muscles  seem  to  be  less  under  the  command  of 
the  will  than  the  other  related  muscles ;  and  if  they 
be  well  developed,  their  contraction  can  be  checked 
only  by  the  antagonistic  contraction  of  the  central 
fasciae  of  the  frontal  muscle.  The  result  which  neces- 
sarily follows,  if  these  fasciae  contract  energetically,  is 
the  oblique  drawing  up  of  the  eyebrows,  the  puckering 
of  their  inner  ends,  and  the  formation  of  rectangular 
furrows  on  the  middle  of  the  forehead.  As  children 
and  women  cry  much  more  freely  than  men,  and  as 
grown-up  persons  of  both  sexes  rarely  weep  except  from 
mental  distress,  we  can  understand  why  the  grief-muscles 
are  more  frequently  seen  in  action,  as  I  believe  to  be  the 
case,  with  children  and  women  than  with  men;  and 
with  adults  of  both  sexes  from  mental  distress  alone. 
In  some  of  the  cases  before  recorded,  as  in  that  of 
the  poor  Dhangar  woman  and  of  the  Hindustani  man, 
the  action  of  the  grief-muscles  was  quickly  followed 
by  bitter  weeping.  In  all  cases  of  distress,  whether 


CHAP.  VII.      DEPRESSED   CORNERS  OF  THE   MOUTH.         193 

great  or  small,  our  brains  tend  through  long  habit  to 
send  an  order  to  certain  muscles  to  contract,  as  if  we 
were  still  infants  on  the  point  of  screaming  out;  but 
this  order  we,  by  the  wondrous  power  of  the  will, 
and  through  habit,  are  able  partially  to  counteract ; 
although  this  is  effected  unconsciously,  as  far  as  the 
means  of  counteraction  are  concerned. 

On  the  depression  of  the  corners  of  the  mouth. — This 
action  is  effected  by  the  depressores  anguli  oris  (see 
letter  K  in  figs.  1  and  2).  The  fibres  of  this  muscle 
diverge  downwards,  with  the  upper  convergent  ends 
attached  round  the  angles  of  the  mouth,  and  to  the 
lower  lip  a  little  way  within  the  angles.6  Some  of 
the  fibres  appear  to  be  antagonistic  to  the  great  zygo- 
matic  muscle,  and  others  to  the  several  muscles  running 
to  the  outer  part  of  the  upper  lip.  The  contraction  of 
this  muscle  draws  downwards  and  outwards  the  corners 
of  the  mouth,  including  the  outer  part  of  the  upper 
lip,  and  even  in  a  slight  degree  the  wings  of  the  nostrils. 
"When  the  mouth  is  closed  and  this  muscle  acts,  the 
commissure  or  line  of  junction  of  the  two  lips  forms  a 
curved  line  with  the  concavity  downwards,7  and  the  lips 
themselves  are  generally  somewhat  protruded,  especially 
the  lower  one.  The  mouth  in  this  state  is  well  repre- 
sented in  the  two  photographs  (Plate  II.,  figs.  6  and  7) 
by  Mr.  Rej lander.  The  upper  boy  (fig.  6)  had  just 
stopped  crying,  after  receiving  a  slap  on  the  face  from 
another  boy;  and  the  right  moment  was  seized  for 
photographing  him. 

The  expression  of  low  spirits,  grief  or  dejection,  due 

6  Hcnle,  Haudbuch  der  Anat.    des  Menschen,  1858,  B.  i.  s.  148, 
figs.  68  and  69. 

7  See  the  account  of  the  action  of  this  muscle  by  Dr.  Duchenne, 
'  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie  Humaine,'  Album  (1 862),  viii.  p.  34. 


1.94  EXPRESSION  or  GRIEF:  CHAP. VIL 

to  the  contraction  of  this  muscle  has  been  noticed  by 
every  one  who  has  written  on  the  subject.  To  say  that 
a  person  "  is  down  in  the  mouth,"  is  synonymous  with 
saying  that  he  is  out  of  spirits.  The  depression  of 
the  corners  may  often  be  seen,  as  already  stated  on  the 
authority  of  Dr.  Crichton  Browne  and  Mr.  Nicol,  with 
the  melancholic  insane,  and  was  well  exhibited  in  some 
photographs  sent  to  me  by  the  former  gentleman,  of 
patients  with  a  strong  tendency  to  suicide.  It  has 
been  observed  with  men  belonging  to  various  races, 
namely  with  Hindoos,  the  dark  hill-tribes  of  India, 
Malays,  and,  as  the  Eev.  Mr.  Hagenauer  informs  me, 
with  the  aborigines  of  Australia. 

When  infants  scream  they  firmly  contract  the  muscles 
round  their  eyes,  and  this  draws  up  the  upper  lip ;  and 
as  they  have  to  keep  their  mouths  widely  open,  the 
depressor  muscles  running  to  the  corners  are  likewise 
brought  into  strong  action.  This  generally,  but  not 
invariably,  causes  a  slight  angular  bend  in  the  lower 
lip  on  both  sides,  near  the  corners  of  the  mouth.  The 
result  of  the  upper  and  lower  lip  being  thus  acted  on, 
is  that  the  mouth  assumes  a  squarish  outline.  The 
contraction  of  the  depressor  muscle  is  best  seen  in 
infants  when  not  screaming  violently,  and  especially 
just  before  they  begin,  or  when  they  cease  to  scream. 
Their  little  faces  then  acquire  an  extremely  piteous 
expression,  as  I  continually  observed  with  my  own 
infants  between  the  ages  of  about  six  weeks  and  two 
or  three  months.  Sometimes,  when  they  are  struggling 
against  a  crying-fit,  the  outline  of  the  mouth  is  curved 
in  so  exaggerated  a  manner  as  to  be  like  a  horseshoe ; 
and  the  expression  of  misery  then  becomes  a  ludicrous 
caricature. 

The  explanation  of  the  contraction  of  this  muscle, 
under  the  influence  of  low  spirits  or  dejection,  appa- 


CHAP.  VII.       DEPRESSED   CORNERS  OF  THE   MOUTH.       195 

rently  follows  from  the  same  general  principles  as  in  the 
case  of  the  obliquity  of  the  eyebrows.  Dr.  Ducheime 
informs  me  that  he  concludes  from  his  observations, 
now  prolonged  during  many  years,  that  this  is  one  of 
the  facial  muscles  which  is  least  under  the  control 
of  the  will.  This  fact  may  indeed  be  inferred  from 
what  has  just  been  stated  with  respect  to  infants  when 
doubtfully  beginning  to  cry,  or  endeavouring  to  stop 
crying ;  for  they  then  generally  command  all  the  other 
facial  muscles  more  effectually  than  they  do  the  de- 
pressors of  the  corners  of  the  mouth.  Two  excellent 
observers  who  had  no  theory  on  the  subject,  one  of 
them  a  surgeon,  carefully  watched  for  me  some  older 
children  and  women  as  with  some  opposed  struggling 
they  very  gradually  approached  the  point  of  bursting 
out  into  tears;  and  both  observers  felt  sure  that  the 
depressors  began  to  act  before  any  of  the  other 
muscles.  Now  as  the  depressors  have  been  repeatedly 
brought  into  strong  action  during  infancy  in  many 
generations,  nerve-force  will  tend  to  flow,  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  long  associated  habit,  to  these  muscles  as  well 
as  to  various  other  facial  muscles,  whenever  in  after 
life  even  a  slight  feeling  of  distress  is  experienced.  But 
as  the  depressors  are  somewhat  less  under  the  control 
of  the  will  than  most  of  the  other  muscles,  we  might 
expect  that  they  would  often  slightly  contract,  whilst 
the  others  remained  passive.  It  is  remarkable  how 
small  a  depression  of  the  corners  of  the  mouth  gives 
to  the  countenance  an  expression  of  low  spirits  or  dejec- 
tion, so  that  an  extremely  slight  contraction  of  these 
muscles  would  be  sufficient  to  betray  this  state  of  mind. 

I  may  here  mention  a  trifling  observation,  as  it  will 
serve  to  sum  up  our  present  subject.  An  old  lady 
with  a  comfortable  but  absorbed  expression  sat  nearly 


196  EXPRESSION  OF   GRIEF:  CHAP.  VII. 

opposite  to  me  in  a  railway  carnage.  Whilst  I  was 
looking  at  her,  I  saw  that  her  depressores  anguli  oris 
became  very  slightly,  yet  decidedly,  contracted ;  but  as 
her  countenance  remained  as  placid  as  ever,  I  reflected 
how  meaningless  was  this  contraction,  and  how  easily 
one  might  be  deceived.  The  thought  had  hardly 
occurred  to  me  when  I  saw  that  her  eyes  suddenly 
became  suffused  with  tears  almost  to  overflowing,  and 
her  whole  countenance  fell.  There  could  now  be  no 
doubt  that  some  painful  recollection,  perhaps  that  of  a 
long-lost  child,  was  passing  through  her  mind.  As  soon 
as  her  sensorium  was  thus  affected,  certain  nerve-cells 
from  long  habit  instantly  transmitted  an  order  to 
all  the  respiratory  muscles,  and  to  those  round  the 
mouth,  to  prepare  for  a  fit  of  crying.  But  the  order 
was  countermanded  by  ths  will,  or  rather  by  a  later 
acquired  habit,  and  all  the  muscles  were  obedient, 
excepting  in  a  slight  degree  the  depressores  anguli 
oris.  The  mouth  was  not  even  opened ;  the  respiration 
was  not  hurried ;  and  no  muscle  was  affected  except 
those  which  draw  down  the  corners  of  the  mouth. 

As  soon  as  the  mouth  of  this  lady  began,  involun- 
tarily and  unconsciously  on  her  part,  to  assume  the 
proper  form  for  a  crying-fit,  we  may  feel  almost  sure 
that  some  nerve-influence  would  have  been  transmitted 
through  the  long  accustomed  channels  to  the  various 
respiratory  muscles,  as  well  as  to  those  round  the  eyes, 
and  to  the  vaso-motor  centre  which  governs  the  supply  of 
blood  sent  to  the  lacrymal  glands.  Of  this  latter  fact  we 
have  indeed  clear  evidence  in  her  eyes  becoming  slightly 
suffused  with  tears ;  and  we  can  understand  this,  as  the 
lacrymal  glands  are  less  under  the  control  of  the  will 
than  the  facial  muscles.  No  doubt  there  existed  at  the 
some  time  some  tendency  in  the  muscles  round  the  eyes 
at  contract,  as  if  for  the  sake  of  protecting  them  from 


CHAP.  VII.       DEPRESSED   CORNERS   OF   THE   MOUTH.        197 

being  gorged  with  blood,  but  this  contraction  was  com- 
pletely overmastered,  and  her  brow  remained  unruffled. 
Had  the  pyramidal,  corrugator,  and  orbicular  muscles 
been  as  little  obedient  to  the  will,  as  they  are  in  many 
persons,  they  would  have  been  slightly  acted  on ;  and 
then  the  central  fasciae  of  the  frontal  muscle  would 
have  contracted  in  antagonism,  and  her  eyebrows  would 
have  become  oblique,  with  rectangular  furrows  on  her 
forehead.  Her  countenance  would  then  have  expressed 
still  more  plainly  than  it  did  a  state  of  dejection,  or 
rather  one  of  grief. 

Through  steps  such  as  these  we  can  understand  how 
it  is,  that  as  soon  as  some  melancholy  thought  passes 
through  the  brain,  there  occurs  a  just  perceptible 
drawing  down  of  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  or  a  slight 
raising  up  of  the  inner  ends  of  the  eyebrows,  or  both 
movements  combined,  and  immediately  afterwards  a 
slight  suffusion  of  tears.  A  thrill  of  nerve-force  is 
transmitted  along  several  habitual  channels,  and  pro- 
duces an  effect  on  any  point  where  the  will  has  not 
acquired  through  long  habit  much  power  of  interference. 
The  above  actions  may  be  considered  as  rudiinental 
vestiges  of  the  screaming-fits,  which  are  so  frequent 
and  prolonged  during  infancy.  In  this  case,  as  well  as 
in  many  others,  the  links  are  indeed  wonderful  which 
connect  cause  and  effect  in  giving  rise  to  various  ex- 
pressions on  the  human  countenance ;  and  they  explaiu 
to  us  the  meaning  of  certain  movements,  which  we  in- 
voluntarily and  unconsciously  perform,  whenever  certain 
transitory  emotions  pass  through  our  minds. 


198  EXPKESSION  OF  JOY:  CHAP.  VIII. 


CHAPTEE   VIII. 
JOT,  HIGH  SPIRITS,  LOVE,  TENDER  FEELINGS,  DEVOTION. 

Laughter  primarily  the  expression  of  joy  —  Ludicrous  ideas  —  Move- 
ments of  the  features  during  laughter  —  Nature  of  the  sound 
produced  —  The  secretion  of  tears  during  loud  laughter  —  Gra- 
dation from  loud  laughter  to  gentle  smiling  —  High  spirits  — 
The  expression  of  love  —  Tender  feelings  —  Devotion. 

JOY,  when  intense,  leads  to  various  purposeless  move- 
ments— to  dancing  about,  clapping  the  hands,  stamping, 
&c.,  and  to  loud  laughter.  Laughter  seems  primarily 
to  be  the  expression  of  mere  joy  or  happiness.  We 
clearly  see  this  in  children  at  play,  who  are  almost  inces- 
santly laughing.  With  young  persons  past  childhood, 
when  they  are  in  high  spirits,  there  is  always  much 
meaningless  laughter.  The  laughter  of  the  gods  is 
described  by  Homer  as  "  the  exuberance  of  their  celes- 
"  tial  joy  after  their  daily  banquet."  A  man  smiles — 
and  smiling,  as  we  shall  see,  graduates  into  laughter — 
at  meeting  an  old  friend  in  the  street,  as  he  does  at  any 
trifling  pleasure,  such  as  smelling  a  sweet  perfume.1 
Laura  Bridgman,  from  her  blindness  and  deafness, 
could  not  have  acquired  any  expression  through  imi- 
tation, yet  when  a  letter  from  a  beloved  friend  was 
communicated  to  her  by  gesture-language,  she  "  laughe  1 
"  and  clapped  her  hands,  and  the  colour  mounted  to 
"  her  cheeks."  On  other  occasions  she  has  been  seen  to 
stamp  for  joy.2  

1  Herbert  Spencer,  « Essays  Scientific,'  &c.,  1858,  p.  360. 

2  F.  Lieber  on  the  vocal  sounds  of  L.  Bridgman,  'Smithsonian 
Contributions/  1851,  vol.  ii.  p.  6. 


\HAP.  VIII.  LAUGHTER.  199 

Idiots  and  imbecile  persons  likewise  afford  good 
evidence  that  laughter  or  smiling  primarily  expresses 
mere  happiness  or  joy.  Dr.  Crichton  Browne,  to  whom, 
as  on  so  many  other  occasions,  I  am  indebted  for  the 
results  of  his  wide  experience,  informs  me  that  with 
idiots  laughter  is  the  most  prevalent  and  frequent  of  all 
the  emotional  expressions.  Many  idiots  are  morose,  pas- 
sionate, restless,  in  a  painful  state  of  mind,  or  utterly 
stolid,  and  these  never  laugh.  Others  frequently 
laugh  in  a  quite  senseless  manner.  Thus  an  idiot 
boy,  incapable  of  speech,  complained  to  Dr.  Browne,  by 
the  aid  of  signs,  that  another  boy  in  the  asylum  had 
given  him  a  black  eye;  and  this  was  accompanied  by 
"  explosions  of  laughter  and  with  his  face  covered  with 
"  the  broadest  smiles."  There  is  another  large  class  of 
idiots  who  are  persistently  joyous  and  benign,  and  who 
are  constantly  laughing  or  smiling.3  Their  counte- 
nances often  exhibit  a  stereotyped  smile ;  their  joyous- 
ness  is  increased,  and  they  grin,  chuckle,  or  giggle, 
whenever  food  is  placed  before  them,  or  when  they 
are  caressed,  are  shown  bright  colours,  or  hear  music. 
Some  of  them  laugh  more  than  usual  when  they  walk 
about,  or  attempt  any  muscular  exertion.  The  joyous- 
ness  of  most  of  these  idiots  cannot  possibly  be  associated, 
as  Dr.  Browne  remarks,  with  any  distinct  ideas :  they 
simply  feel  pleasure,  and  express  it  by  laughter  or 
smiles.  With  imbeciles  rather  higher  in  the  scale, 
personal  vanity  seems  to  be  the  commonest  cause  of 
laughter,  and  next  to  this,  pleasure  arising  from  the 
approbation  of  their  conduct. 

With  grown-up  persons  laughter  is  excited  by  causes 
considerably  different  from  those  which  suffice  during 
childhood ;  but  this  remark  hardly  applies  to  smiling. 


a  See,  also,  Mr.  Marshall,  in  Phil.  Transact.  186 1,  p.  526. 


200  EXPRESSION  OF  JOY :  CHAP.  VIII. 

Laughter  in  this  respect  is  analogous  with  weeping, 
which  with  adults  is  almost  confined  to  mental  distress, 
whilst  with  children  it  is  excited  by  bodily  pain  or  any 
suffering,  as  well  as  by  fear  or  rage.  Many  curious 
discussions  have  been  written  on  the  causes  of  laughter 
with  grown-up  persons.  The  subject  is  extremely 
complex.  Something  incongruous  or  unaccountable, 
exciting  surprise  and  some  sense  of  superiority  in  the 
laugher,  who  must  be  in  a  happy  frame  of  mind,  seems 
to  be  the  commonest  cause.4  The  circumstances  must 
not  be  of  a  momentous  nature:  no  poor  man  would 
laugh  or  smile  on  suddenly  hearing  that  a  large  fortune 
had  been  bequeathed  to  him.  If  the  mind  is  strongly 
excited  by  pleasurable  feelings,  and  any  little  unex- 
pected event  or  thought  occurs,  then,  as  Mr.  Herbert 
Spencer  remarks,5  "  a  large  amount  of  nervous  energy, 
"  instead  of  being  allowed  to  expend  itself  in  producing 
"  an  equivalent  amount  of  the  new  thoughts  and  emo- 
tion which  were  nascent,  is  suddenly  checked  in  its 
"flow."  .  .  .  "The  excess  must  discharge  itself  in  "some 
"  other  direction,  and  there  results  an  efflux  through  the 
"  motor  nerves  to  various  classes  of  the  muscles,  pro- 
"  ducing  the  half-convulsive  actions  we  term  laughter." 
An  observation,  bearing  on  this  point,  was  made  by 
a  correspondent  during  the  recent  siege  of  Paris, 
namely,  that  the  German  soldiers,  after  strong  excite- 
ment from  exposure  to  extreme  danger,  were  particularly 
apt  to  burst  out  into  loud  laughter  at  the  smallest  joke. 
So  again  when  young  children  are  just  beginning  to  cry, 
an  unexpected  event  will  sometimes  suddenly  turn  their 


4  Mr.  Bain  ('  The  Emotions  and  the  Will,'  1865,  p.  247)  has  a  long 
and  interesting  discussion  on  the  Ludicrous.  The  quotation  above 
given  about  the  laughter  of  the  gods  is  taken  from  this  work.  See, 
also,  Mancleville,  '  The  Fable  of  the  Bees,'  vol.  ii.  p.  168. 

6  '  The  Physiology  of  Laughter,'  Essays,  Second  Series,  1863,  p.  114. 


CHAP.  VIII.  LAUGHTER.  201 

crying  into  laughter,  which  apparently  serves  equally 
well  to  expend  their  superfluous  nervous  energy. 

The  imagination  is  sometimes  said  to  be  tickled  by  a 
ludicrous  idea ;  and  this  so-called  tickling  of  the  mind 
is  curiously  analogous  with  that  of  the  body.  Every  one 
knows  how  immoderately  children  laugh,  and  how  their 
whole  bodies  are  convulsed  when  they  are  tickled.  The 
anthropoid  apes,  as  we  have  seen,  likewise  utter  a  re- 
iterated sound,  corresponding  with  our  laughter,  when 
they  are  tickled,  especially  under  the  armpits.  I 
touched  with  a  bit  of  paper  the  sole  of  the  foot  of 
one  of  my  infants,  when  only  seven  days  old,  and  it 
was  suddenly  jerked  away  and  the  toes  curled  about,  as 
in  an  older  child.  Such  movements,  as  well  as  laughter 
from  being  tickled,  are  manifestly  reflex  actions;  and 
this  is  likewise  shown  by  the  minute  unstriped  muscles, 
which  serve  to  erect  the  separate  hairs  on  the  body, 
contracting  near  a  tickled  surface.6  Yet  laughter  from 
a  ludicrous  idea,  though  involuntary,  cannot  be  called  a 
strictly  reflex  action.  In  this  case,  and  in  that  of  laughter 
from  being  tickled,  the  mind  must  be  in  a  pleasurable 
condition ;  a  young  child,  if  tickled  by  a  strange  man, 
would  scream  from  fear.  The  touch  must  be  light,  and 
an  idea  or  event,  to  be  ludicrous,  must  not  be  of  grave 
import.  The  parts  of  the  body  which  are  most  easily 
tickled  are  those  which  are  not  commonly  touched,  such 
as  the  armpits  or  between  the  toes,  or  parts  such  as  the 
soles  of  the  feet,  which  are  habitually  touched  by  a  broad 
surface ;  but  the  surface  on  which  we  sit  offers  a  marked 
exception  to  this  rule.  According  to  Gratiolet,7  certain 
nerves  are  much  more  sensitive  to  tickling  than  others. 
From  the  fact  that  a  child  can  hardly  tickle  itself,  or  in 


0  J.  Lister  in  '  Qiiarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Science,'  1853, 
vol.  i.  p.  266.  7  *  De  la  Physionomie,'  p.  186. 


202  EXPRESSION  OF  JOY :  CHAP.  VIII. 

a  much  less  degree  than  when  tickled  by  another  person, 
it  seems  that  the  precise  point  to  be  touched  must  not 
be  known ;  so  with  the  mind,  something  unexpected — a 
novel  or  incongruous  idea  which  breaks  through  an 
habitual  train  of  thought — appears  to  be  a  strong  ele- 
ment in  the  ludicrous. 

The  sound  of  laughter  is  produced  by  a  deep  inspira- 
tion followed  by  short,  interrupted,  spasmodic  contrac- 
tions of  the  chest,  and  especially  of  the  diaphragm.8 
Hence  we  hear  of  "  laughter  holding  both  his  sides." 
From  the  shaking  of  the  body,  the  head  nods  to  and  fro. 
The  lower  jaw  often  quivers  up  and  down,  as  is  like- 
wise the  case  with  some  species  of  baboons,  when  they 
are  much  pleased. 

During  laughter  the  mouth  is  opened  more  or  less 
widely,  with  the  corners  drawn  much  backwards,  as 
well  as  a  little  upwards ;  and  the  upper  lip  is  somewhat 
raised.  The  drawing  back  of  the  corners  is  best  seen 
in  moderate  laughter,  and  especially  in  a  broad  smile — 
the  latter  epithet  showing  how  the  mouth  is  widened. 
In  the  accompanying  figs.  1-3,  Plate  III.,  different 
degrees  of  moderate  laughter  and  smiling  have  been 
photographed.  The  figure  of  the  little  girl,  with  the 
hat,  is  by  Dr.  Wallich,  and  the  expression  was  a  genuine 
one ;  the  other  two  are  by  Mr.  Kejlander.  Dr.  Duchenne 
repeatedly  insists 9  that,  under  the  emotion  of  joy,  the 
mouth  is  acted  on  exclusively  by  the  great  zygo- 
matic  muscles,  which  serve  to  draw  the  corners  back- 
wards and  upwards;  but  judging  from  the  manner  in 
which  the  upper  teeth  are  always  exposed  during 
laughter  and  broad  smiling,  as  well  as  from  my  own 
sensations,  I  cannot  doubt  that  some  of  the  muscles 


8  Sir  C.  Bell  (Anat.  of  Expression,  p.  147)  makes  some  remarks  on 
the  movement  of  the  diaphragm  during  laughter. 

9  '  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie  Humaine/  Album,  Legcnde  vi. 


Tab  111 


fhaloyrmure  tyVBnule  Oyk 


CHAP.  VIII.  LAUGHTEK.  203 

running  to  the  upper  lip  are  likewise  brought  into 
moderate  action.  The  upper  and  lower  orbicular 
muscles  of  the  eyes  are  at  the  same  time  more  or  less 
contracted;  and  there  is  an  intimate  connection,  as 
explained  in  the  chapter  on  weeping,  between  the 
orbiculars,  especially  the  lower  ones,  and  some  of  the 
muscles  running  to  the  upper  lip.  Henle  remarks  10 
on  this  head,  that  when  a  man  closely  shuts  one  eye 
he  cannot  avoid  retracting  the  upper  lip  on  the  same 
side ;  conversely,  if  any  one  will  place  his  finger  on  his 
lower  eyelid,  and  then  uncover  his  upper  incisors  as 
much  as  possible,  he  will  feel,  as  his  upper  lip  is  drawn 
strongly  upwards,  that  the  muscles  of  the  lower  eyelid 
contract.  In  Henle's  drawing,  given  in  woodcut,  fig.  2, 
the  musculus  malaris  (H)  which  runs  to  the  upper  lip 
may  be  seen  to  form  an  almost  integral  part  of  the 
lower  orbicular  muscle. 

Dr.  Duchenne  has  given  a  large  photograph  of  an  old 
man  (reduced  on  Plate  III.  fig.  4),  in  his  usual  passive 
condition,  and  another  of  the  same  man  (fig.  5),  naturally 
smiling.  The  latter  was  instantly  recognised  by  every 
one  to  whom  it  was  shown  as  true  to  nature.  He  has 
also  given,  as  an  example  of  an  unnatural  or  false  smile, 
another  photograph  (fig.  6)  of  the  same  old  man,  with 
the  corners  of  his  mouth  strongly  retracted  by  the  gal- 
vanization of  the  great  zygomatic  muscles.  That  the 
expression  is  not  natural  is  clear,  for  I  showed  this  pho- 
tograph to  twenty-four  persons,  of  whom  three  could  not 
in  the  least  tell  what  was  meant,  whilst  the  others, 
though  they  perceived  that  the  expression  was  of  the 
nature  of  a  smile,  answered  in  such  words  as  "  a  wicked 
"joke,"  "trying  to  laugh,"  "grinning  laughter,-"  "half- 


10  Handbuch  der  System.  Anat.  des  Mcnschen,  1858,  B.  i.  s.  144. 
See  my  woodcut  (H.  fig.  2). 


204  EXPRESSION  OF  JOY :  CHAP.  VIIL 

"  amazed  laughter,"  &c.  Dr.  Duchenne  attributes  the 
falseness  of  the  expression  altogether  to  the  orbicular 
muscles  of  the  lower  eyelids  not  being  sufficiently  con- 
tracted ;  for  lie  justly  lays  great  stress  on  their  contrac- 
tion in  the  expression  of  joy.  No  doubt  there  is  much 
truth  in  this  view,  but  not,  as  it  appears  to  me,  the 
whole  truth.  The  contraction  of  the  lower  orbiculars  is 
always  accompanied,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  drawing  up 
of  the  upper  lip.  Had  the  upper  lip,  in  fig.  6,  been  thus 
acted  on  to  a  slight  extent,  its  curvature  would  have 
been  less  rigid,  the  naso-labial  furrow  would  have  been 
slightly  different,  and  the  whole  expression  would,  as 
I  believe,  have  been  more  natural,  independently 
of  the  more  conspicuous  effect  from  the  stronger  con- 
traction of  the  lower  eyelids.  The  corrugator  muscle, 
moreover,  in  fig.  6,  is  too  much  contracted,  causing  a 
frown ;  and  this  muscle  never  acts  under  the  influence 
of  joy  except  during  strongly  pronounced  or  violent 
laughter. 

By  the  drawing  backwards  and  upwards  of  the  corners 
of  the  mouth,  through  the  contraction  of  the  great 
zygomatic  muscles,  and  by  the  raising  of  the  upper  lip, 
the  cheeks  are  drawn  upwards.  Wrinkles  are  thus 
formed  under  the  eyes,  and,  with  old  people,  at  their 
outer  ends ;  and  these  are  highly  characteristic  of 
laughter  or  smiling.  As  a  gentle  smile  increases  into 
a  strong  one,  or  into  a  laugh,  every  one  may  feel  and 
see,  if  he  will  attend  to  his  own  sensations  and  look 
at  himself  in  a  mirror,  that  as  the  upper  lip  is  drawn 
up  and  the  lower  orbiculars  contract,  the  wrinkles  in 
the  lower  eyelids  and  those  beneath  the  eyes  are  much 
strengthened  or  increased.  At  the  same  time,  as  I  have 
repeatedly  observed,  the  eyebrows  are  slightly  lowered, 
which  shows  that  the  upper  as  well  as  the  lower  orbicu- 
lars contract  at  least  to  some  degree,  though  this  passes 


CHAP.  VIII.  LAUGHTER.  205 

unperceived,  as  far  as  our  sensations  are  concerned.  If 
the  original  photograph  of  the  old  man,  with  his  counte- 
nance in  its  usual  placid  state  (fig.  4),  be  compared  with 
that  (fig.  5)  in  which  he  is  naturally  smiling,  it  may  be 
seen  that  the  eyebrows  in  the  latter  are  a  little  lowered. 
I  presume  that  this  is  owing  to  the  upper  orbiculars 
being  impelled,  through  the  force  of  long- associated 
habit,  to  act  to  a  certain  extent  in  concert  with  the 
lower  orbiculars,  which  themselves  contract  in  connec- 
tion with  the  drawing  up  of  the  upper  lip. 

The  tendency  in  the  zygomatic  muscles  to  contract 
under  pleasurable  emotions  is  shown  by  a  curious  fact, 
communicated  to  me  by  Dr.  Browne,  with  respect  to 
patients  suffering  from  general  paralysis  of  the  insane?1 
"  In  this  malady  there  is  almost  invariably  optimism — 
"  delusions  as  to  wealth,  rank,  grandeur — insane  joyous- 
"  ness,  benevolence,  and  profusion,  while  its  very  earliest 
"  physical  symptom  is  trembling  at  the  corners  of  the 
"  mouth  and  at  the  outer  corners  of  the  eyes.  This  is  a 
"  well-recognized  fact.  Constant  tremulous  agitation 
"  of  the  inferior  palpebral  and  great  zygomatic  muscles 
"  is  pathognomic  of  the  earlier  stages  of  general  para- 
"  lysis.  The  countenance  has  a  pleased  and  benevolent 
"  expression.  As  the  disease  advances  other  muscles 
"  become  involved,  but  until  complete  fatuity  is  reached, 
"  the  prevailing  expression  is  that  of  feeble  benevo- 
«  lence." 

As  in  laughing  and  broadly  smiling  the  cheeks  and 
upper  lip  are  much  raised,  the  nose  appears  to  be 
shortened,  and  the  skin  on  the  bridge  becomes  finely 
wrinkled  in  transverse  lines,  with  other  oblique  longi- 
tudinal lines  on  the  sides.  The  upper  front  teeth  are 


11  See,  also,  remarks  to  the  same  effect  by  Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne 
in  '  Journal  of  Meutal  Science,'  April,  1871,  p.  149. 


206  EXPRESSION  OF  JOY:  CHAP.  VIII. 

commonly  exposed.  A  well-marked  naso-labial  fold  is 
formed,  which  runs  from  the  wing  of  each  nostril  to 
the  corner  of  the  mouth ;  and  this  fold  is  often  double 
in  old  persons. 

A  bright  and  sparkling  eye  is  as  characteristic  of  a 
pleased  or  amused  state  of  mind,  as  is  the  retraction 
of  the  corners  of  the  mouth  and  upper  lip  with 
the  wrinkles  thus  produced.  Even  the  eyes  of  mi- 
crocephalous  idiots,  who  are  so  degraded  that  they 
never  learn  to  speak,  brighten  slightly  when  they  are 
pleased.12  Under  extreme  laughter  the  eyes  are  too 
much  suffused  with  tears  to  sparkle ;  but  the  moisture 
squeezed  out  of  the  glands  during  moderate  laughter 
or  smiling  may  aid  in  giving  them  lustre ;  though  this 
must  be  of  altogether  subordinate  importance,  as  they 
become  dull  from  grief,  though  they  are  then  often 
moist.  Their  brightness  seems  to  be  chiefly  due  to 
their  tenseness,13  owing  to  the  contraction  of  the  orbi- 
cular muscles  and  to  the  pressure  of  the  raised  cheeks. 
But,  according  to  Dr.  Piderit,  who  has  discussed  this 
point  more  fully  than  any  other  writer,14  the  tenseness 
may  be  largely  attributed  to  the  eyeballs  becoming 
filled  with  blood  and  other  fluids,  from  the  accelera- 
tion of  the  circulation,  consequent  on  the  excitement 
of  pleasure.  He  remarks  on  the  contrast  in  the 
appearance  of  the  eyes  of  a  hectic  patient  with  a  rapid 
circulation,  and  of  a  man  suffering  from  cholera  with 
almost  all  the  fluids  of  his  body  drained  from  him. 
Any  cause  which  lowers  the  circulation  deadens  the 
eye.  I  remember  seeing  a  man  utterly  prostrated  by 
prolonged  and  severe  exertion  during  a  very  hot  day, 


12  C.  Vogt,  '  Memoire  sur  les  Microce'phales,'  1867,  p.  21, 

13  Sir  C.  Bell,  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  133. 

14  '  Mimik  imd  Physiognomik,'  1867,  s  63-67. 


CHAP.  VIII.  LAUGHTER.  207 

and  a  bystander  compared  his  eyes  to  those  of  a  boiled 
codfish. 

To  return  to  the  sounds  produced  during  laughter. 
We  can  see  in  a  vague  manner  how  the  utterance  of 
sounds  of  some  kind  would  naturally  become  associated 
with  a  pleasurable  state  of  mind ;  for  throughout  a 
large  part  of  the  animal  kingdom  vocal  or  instrumental 
sounds  are  employed  either  as  a  call  or  as  a  charm  by 
one  sex  for  the  other.  They  are  also  employed  as  the 
means  for  a  joyful  meeting  between  the  parents  and 
their  offspring,  and  between  the  attached  members  of 
the  same  social  community.  But  why  the  sounds 
which  man  utters  when  he  is  pleased  have  the  peculiar 
reiterated  character  of  laughter  we  do  not  know. 
Nevertheless  we  can  see  that  they  would  naturally  be 
as  different  as  possible  from  the  screams  or  cries  of  dis- 
tress ;  and  as  in  the  production  of  the  latter,  the  expira- 
tions are  prolonged  and  continuous,  with  the  inspirations 
short  and  interrupted,  so  it  might  perhaps  have  been 
expected  with  the  sounds  uttered  from  joy,  that  the  ex- 
pirations would  have  been  short  and  broken  with  the 
inspirations  prolonged ;  and  this  is  the  case. 

It  is  an  equally  obscure  point  why  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  are  retracted  and  the  upper  lip  raised  during 
ordinary  laughter.  The  mouth  must  not  be  opened  to  its 
utmost  extent,  for  when  this  occurs  during  a  paroxysm 
of  excessive  laughter  hardly  any  sound  is  emitted;  or 
it  changes  its  tone  and  seems  to  come  from  deep  down 
in  the  throat.  The  respiratory  muscles,  and  even 
those  of  the  limbs,  are  at  the  same  time  thrown  into 
rapid  vibratory  movements.  The  lower  jaw  often  par- 
takes of  this  movement,  and  this  would  tend  to  prevent 
the  mouth  from  being  widely  opened.  But  as  a  full 
volume  of  sound  has  to  be  poured  forth,  the  orifice  of 
the  mouth  must  be  large;  and  it  is  perhaps  to  gain 


208  EXPRESSION  OF  JOY :  CHAP.  VIII. 

this  end  that  the  corners  are  retracted  and  the  upper 
lip  raised.  Although  we  can  hardly  account  for  the 
shape  of  the  mouth  during  laughter,  which  leads  to 
wrinkles  being  formed  beneath  the  eyes,  nor  for 
the  peculiar  reiterated  sound  of  laughter,  nor  for  the 
quivering  of  the  jaws,  nevertheless  we  may  infer  that 
all  these  effects  are  due  to  some  common  cause.  For 
they  are  all  characteristic  and  expressive  of  a  pleased 
state  of  mind  in  various  kinds  of  monkeys. 

A  graduated  series  can  be  followed  from  violent  to 
moderate  laughter,  to  a  broad  smile,  to  a  gentle  smile, 
and  to  the  expression  of  mere  cheerfulness.  During 
excessive  laughter  the  whole  body  is  often  thrown 
backward  and  shakes,  or  is  almost  convulsed ;  the 
respiration  is  much  disturbed ;  the  head  and  face 
become  gorged  with  blood,  with  the  veins  distended ; 
and  the  orbicular  muscles  are  spasmodically  contracted 
in  order  to  protect  the  eyes.  Tears  are  freely  shed. 
Hence,  as  formerly  remarked,  it  is  scarcely  possible 
to  point  out  any  difference  between  the  tear-stained 
face  of  a  person  after  a  paroxysm  of  excessive  laughter 
and  after  a  bitter  crying-fit.15  It  is  probably  due  to 
the  close  similarity  of  the  spasmodic  movements  caused 
by  these  widely  different  emotions  that  hysteric  patients 
alternately  cry  and  laugh  with  violence,  and  that  young 
children  sometimes  pass  suddenly  from  the  one  to  the 
other  state.  Mr.  Swinhoe  informs  me  that  he  has  often 
seen  the  Chinese,  when  suffering  from  deep  grief,  burst 
out  into  hysterical  fits  of  laughter. 

I  was  anxious  to  know  whether  tears  are  freely  shed 


15  Sir  J.  Reynolds  remarks  ('  Discourses/  xii.  p.  100),  "  It  is  curious 
"  to  observe,  and  it  is  certainly  true,  that  the  extremes  of  contrary 
"  passions  are,  with  very  little  variation,  expressed  by  the  same  action." 
He  gives  as  an  instance  the  frantic  joy  of  a  Bacchante  and  the  grief  of 
a  Mary  Magdalen. 


CHAP.  VIII.  LAUGHTEK.  209 

during  excessive  laughter  by  most  of  the  races  of  men, 
and  I  hear  from  my  correspondents  that  this  is  the  case. 
One  instance  was  observed  with  the  Hindoos,  and  they 
themselves  said  that  it  often  occurred.  So  it  is  with 
the  Chinese.  The  women  of  a  wild  tribe  of  Malays  in 
the  Malacca  peninsula,  sometimes  shed  tears  when  they 
laugh  heartily,  though  this  seldom  occurs.  With  the 
Dyaks  of  Borneo  it  must  frequently  be  the  case,  at 
least  with  the  women,  for  I  hear  from  the  Kajah  C. 
Brooke  that  it  is  a  common  expression  with  them 
to  say  "we  nearly  made  tears  from  laughter."  The 
aborigines  of  Australia  express  their  emotions  freely,  and 
they  are  described  by  my  correspondents  as  jumping 
about  and  clapping  their  hands  for  joy,  and  as  often 
roaring  with  laughter.  "No  less  than  four  observers 
have  seen  their  eyes  freely  watering  on  such  occasions ; 
and  in  one  instance  the  tears  rolled  down  their  cheeks. 
Mr.  Buhner,  a  missionary  in  a  remote  part  of  Victoria, 
remarks,  "  that  they  have  a  keen  sense  of  the  ridiculous ; 
"  they  are  excellent  mimics,  and  when  one  of  them  is 
"  able  to  imitate  the  peculiarities  of  some  absent 
"  member  of  the  tribe,  it  is  very  common  to  hear  all  in 
"  the  camp  convulsed  with  laughter."  With  Euro- 
peans hardly  anything  excites  laughter  so  easily  as 
mimicry ;  and  it  is  rather  curious  to  find  the  same  fact 
with  the  savages  of  Australia,  who  constitute  one  of 
the  most  distinct  races  in  the  world. 

In  Southern  Africa  with  two  tribes  of  Kafirs,  espe- 
cially with  the  women,  their  eyes  often  fill  with  tears 
during  laughter.  Gaika,  the  brother  of  the  chief 
Sandilli,  answers  my  query  on  this  head,  with  the 
words,  "  Yes,  that  is  their  common  practice."  Sir 
Andrew  Smith  has  seen  the  painted  face  of  a  Hottentot 
woman  all  furrowed  with  tears  after  a  fit  of  laughter. 
In  Northern  Africa,  with  the  Abyssinians,  tears  are 
10 


210  EXPRESSION    OF  JOY:  CHAP.  VIII. 

secreted  under  the  same  circumstances.  Lastly,  in 
North  America,  the  same  fact  has  been  observed  in  a 
remarkably  savage  and  isolated  tribe,  but  chiefly  with 
the  women ;  in  another  tribe  it  was  observed  only  on 
a  single  occasion. 

Excessive  laughter,  as  before  remarked,  graduates 
into  moderate  laughter.  In  this  latter  case  the  muscles 
round  the  eyes  are  much  less  contracted,  and  there  is 
little  or  no  frowning.  Between  a  gentle  laugh  and  a 
broad  smile  there  is  hardly  any  difference,  excepting 
that  in  smiling  no  reiterated  sound  is  uttered,  though  a 
single  rather  strong  expiration,  or  slight  noise — a  rudi- 
ment of  a  laugh — may  often  be  heard  at  the  com- 
mencement of  a  smile.  On  a  moderately  smiling 
countenance  the  contraction  of  the  upper  orbicular 
muscles  can  still  just  be  traced  by  a  slight  lowering  of 
the  eyebrows.  The  contraction  of  the  lower  orbicular 
and  palpebral  muscles  is  much  plainer,  and  is  shown 
by  the  wrinkling  of  the  lower  eyelids  and  of  the  skin 
beneath  them,  together  with  a  slight  drawing  up  of 
the  upper  lip.  From  the  broadest  smile  we  pass  by  the 
finest  steps  into  the  gentlest  one.  In  this  latter  case 
the  features  are  moved  in  a  much  less  degree,  and 
much  more  slowly,  and  the  mouth  is  kept  closed. 
The  curvature  of  the  naso-labial  furrow  is  also  slightly 
different  in  the  two  cases.  We  thus  see  that  no  abrupt 
line  of  demarcation  can  be  drawn  between  the  move- 
ment of  the  features  during  the  most  violent  laughter 
and  a  very  faint  smile.16 

A  smile,  therefore,  may  be  said  to  be  the  first  stage 
in  the  development  of  a  laugh.  But  a  different  and 
more  probable  view  may  be  suggested ;  namely,  that 
the  habit  of  uttering  loud  reiterated  sounds  from  a 


16  Dr.  Piderit  has  come  to  the  same  conclusion,  ibid.  s.  99. 


CHAP.  VIII.  LAUGHTER.  211 

sense  of  pleasure,  first  led  to  the  retraction  of  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  and  of  the  upper  lip,  and  to 
the  contraction  of  the  orbicular  muscles;  and  that 
now,  through  association  and  long-continued  habit, 
the  same  muscles  are  brought  into  slight  play  when- 
ever any  cause  excites  in  us  a  feeling  which,  if 
stronger,  would  have  led  to  laughter ;  and  the  result  is 
a  smile. 

Whether  we  look  at  laughter  as  the  full  development 
of  a  smile,  or,  as  is  more  probable,  at  a  gentle  smile  as 
the  last  trace  of  a  habit,  firmly  fixed  during  many 
generations,  of  laughing  whenever  we  are  joyful,  we 
can  follow  in  our  infants  the  gradual  passage  of  the  one 
into  the  other.  It  is  well  known  to  those  who  have  the 
charge  of  young  infants,  that  it  is  difficult  to  feel  sure 
when  certain  movements  about  their  mouths  are  really 
expressive ;  that  is,  when  they  really  smile.  Hence  I 
carefully  watched  my  own  infants.  One  of  them  at  the 
age  of  forty-five  days,  and  being  at  the  time  in  a  happy 
frame  of  mind,  smiled ;  that  is,  the  corners  of  the  mouth 
were  retracted,  and  simultaneously  the  eyes  became 
decidedly  bright.  I  observed  the  same  thing  on  the 
following  day ;  but  on  the  third  day  the  child  was  not 
quite  well  and  there  was  no  trace  of  a  smile,  and  this 
renders  it  probable  that  the  previous  smiles  were  real. 
Eight  days  subsequently  and  during  the  next  succeeding 
week,  it  was  remarkable  how  his  eyes  brightened  when- 
ever he  smiled,  and  his  nose  became  at  the  same  time 
transversely  wrinkled.  This  was  now  accompanied  by 
a  little  bleating  noise,  which  perhaps  represented  a 
laugh.  At  the  age  of  113  days  these  little  noises, 
which  were  always  made  during  expiration,  assumed  a 
slightly  different  character,  and  were  more  broken  or 
interrupted,  as  in  sobbing ;  and  this  was  certainly 
incipient  laughter.  The  change  in  tone  seemed 


212  EXPRESSION  OF  HIGH  SPIRITS.         CHAP.  VIII. 

to  me  at  the  time  to  be  connected  with  the  greater 
lateral  extension  of  the  mouth  as  the  smiles  became 
broader. 

In  a  second  infant  the  first  real  smile  was  observed 
at  about  the  same  age,  viz.  forty-five  days;  and  in  a 
third,  at  a  somewhat  earlier  age.  The  second  infant, 
when  sixty-five  days  old,  smiled  much  more  broadly 
and  plainly  than  did  the  one  first  mentioned  at  the 
same  age;  and  even  at  this  early  age  uttered  noises 
very  like  laughter.  In  this  gradual  acquirement, 
by  infants,  of  the  habit  of  laughing,  we  have  a  case  in 
some  degree  analogous  to  that  of  weeping.  As  practice 
is  requisite  with  the  ordinary  movements  of  the  body, 
such  as  walking,  so  it  seems  to  be  with  laughing  and 
weeping.  The  art  of  screaming,  on  the  other  hand, 
from  being  of  service  to  infants,  has  become  finely 
developed  from  the  earliest  days. 

High  spirits,  cheerfulness. — A  man  in  high  spirits, 
though  he  may  not  actually  smile,  commonly  exhibits 
some  tendency  to  the  retraction  of  the  corners  of  his 
mouth.  From  the  excitement  of  pleasure,  the  circula- 
tion becomes  more  rapid ;  the  eyes  are  bright,  and  the 
colour  of  the  face  rises.  The  brain,  being  stimu- 
lated by  the  increased  flow  of  blood,  reacts  on  the 
mental  powers;  lively  ideas  pass  still  more  rapidly 
through  the  mind,  and  the  affections  are  warmed.  I 
heard  a  child,  a  little  under  four  years  old,  when 
asked  what  was  meant  by  being  in  good  spirits,  answer, 
"  It  is  laughing,  talking,  and  kissing."  It  would 
be  difficult  to  give  a  truer  and  more  practical  defini- 
tion. A  man  in  this  state  holds  his  body  erect,  his 
head  upright,  and  his  eyes  open.  There  is  no  droop- 
ing of  the  features,  and  no  contraction  of  the  eye- 
brows. On  the  contrary,  the  frontal  muscle,  as  Moreau 


CHAP.  VIII.        EXPRESSION  OF   HIGH  SPIRITS.  213 

observes,17  tends  to  contract  slightly ;  and  this  smooths 
the  brow,  removes  every  trace  of  a  frown,  arches  the  eye- 
brows a  little,  and  raises  the  eyelids.  Hence  the  Latin 
phrase,  exporrigere  frontem — to  un  wrinkle  the  brow — 
means,  to  be  cheerful  or  merry.  The  whole  expression  of 
a  man  in  good  spirits  is  exactly  the  opposite  of  that  of  one 
suffering  from  sorrow.  According  to  Sir  C.  Bell,  "  In 
"  all  the  exhilarating  emotions  the  eyebrows,  eyelids, 
"  the  nostrils,  and  the  angles  of  the  mouth  are  raised. 
"  In  the  depressing  passions  it  is  the  reverse."  Under 
the  influence  of  the  latter  the  brow  is  heavy,  the  eye- 
lids, cheeks,  mouth,  and  whole  head  droop ;  the  eyes 
are  dull ;  the  countenance  pallid,  and  the  respiration 
slow.  In  joy  the  face  expands,  in  grief  it  lengthens. 
Whether  the  principle  of  antithesis  has  here  come  into 
play  in  producing  these  opposite  expressions,  in  aid  of 
the  direct  causes  which  have  been  specified  and  which 
are  sufficiently  plain,  I  will  not  pretend  to  say. 

With  all  the  races  of  man  the  expression  of  good 
spirits  appears  to  be  the  same,  and  is  easily  recognised. 
My  informants,  from  various  parts  of  the  Old  and  New 
Worlds,  answer  in  the  affirmative  to  my  queries  on 
this  head,  and  they  give  some  particulars  with  respect  to 
Hindoos,  Malays,  and  New  Zealanders.  The  brightness 
of  the  eyes  of  the  Australians  has  struck  four  observers, 
and  the  same  fact  has  been  noticed  with  Hindoos,  New 
Zealanders,  and  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo. 

Savages  sometimes  express  their  satisfaction  not  only 
by  smiling,  but  by  gestures  derived  from  the  pleasiire 
of  eating.  Thus  Mr.  Wedgwood18  quotes  Petherick 


17  '  La  Physionomie,'  par  G.  Lavater,  edit,  of  1820,  vol.  iv.  p.  224. 
See,  also,  Sir  C.  Bell,  '  Anatoroy  of  Expression,'  p.  172,  for  the  quota- 
tion given  below. 

18  A  '  Dictionary  of  English  Etymology,'  2nd  edit.  1872,  Introduc- 
tion, p.  xliv. 


214  EXPKESSION   OF   HIGH  SPIRITS.          CHAP.  VIII. 

that  the  negroes  on  the  Upper  Nile  began  a  general 
rubbing  of  their  bellies  when  he  displayed  his  beads ; 
and  Leichhardt  says  that  the  Australians  smacked  and 
clacked  their  mouths  at  the  sight  of  his  horses  and 
bullocks,  and  more  especially  of  his  kangaroo  dogs. 
The  Greenlanders,  "when  they  affirm  anything  with 
"  pleasure,  suck  down  air  with  a  certain  sound ;"  19  and 
this  may  be  an  imitation  of  the  act  of  swallowing 
savoury  food. 

Laughter  is  suppressed  by  the  firm  contraction  of  the 
orbicular  muscles  of  the  mouth,  which  prevents  the  great 
zygomatic  and  other  muscles  from  drawing  the  lips 
backwards  and  upwards.  The  lower  lip  is  also  some- 
times held  by  the  teeth,  and  this  gives  a  roguish 
expression  to  the  face,  as  was  observed  with  the  blind 
and  deaf  Laura  Bridgman.20  The  great  zygomatic 
muscle  is  sometimes  variable  in  its  course,  and  I  have 
seen  a  young  woman  in  whom  the  depressores  anguli  oris 
were  brought  into  strong  action  in  suppressing  a  smile  ; 
but  this  by  no  means  gave  to  her  countenance  a  melan- 
choly expression,  owing  to  the  brightness  of  her  eyes. 

Laughter  is  frequently  employed  in  a  forced  manner 
to  conceal  or  mask  some  other  state  of  mind,  even 
anger.  We  often  see  persons  laughing  in  order  to  conceal 
their  shame  or  shyness.  When  a  person  purses  up  his 
mouth,  as  if  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  a  smile,  though 
there  is  nothing  to  excite  one,  or  nothing  to  prevent  its 
free  indulgence,  an  affected,  solemn,  or  pedantic  expres- 
sion is  given;  but  of  such  hybrid  expressions  nothing 
more  need  here  be  said.  In  the  case  of  derision,  a  real 
or  pretended  smile  or  laugh  is  often  blended  with  the 
expression  proper  to  contempt,  and  this  may  pass  into 

19  Crantz,    quoted    by  Tylor,   *  Primitive    Culture,'  1871,   vol.  i. 
p.  169. 
20  F.  Lieber,  '  Smithsonian  Contributions,'  1851,  vol.  ii.  p.  7. 


CHAP.  Till.  EXPRESSION  OF   LOVE,   ETC.  215 

angry  contempt  or  scorn.  In  such  cases  the  meaning 
of  the  laugh  or  smile  is  to  show  the  offending  person 
that  he  excites  only  amusement. 

Love,  tender  feelings,  &c. — Although  the  emotion  of 
love,  for  instance  that  of  a  mother  for  her  infant,  is  one 
of  the  strongest  of  which  the  mind  is  capable,  it  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  any  proper  or  peculiar  means  of 
expression ;  and  this  is  intelligible,  as  it  has  not  habi- 
tually led  to  any  special  line  of  action.  No  doubt,  as 
affection  is  a  pleasurable  sensation,  it  generally  causes  a 
gentle  smile  and  some  brightening  of  the  eyes.  A 
strong  desire  to  touch  the  beloved  person  is  commonly 
felt ;  and  love  is  expressed  by  this  means  more  plainly 
than  by  any  other.21  Hence  we  long  to  clasp  in  our 
arms  those  whom  we  tenderly  love.  We  probably  owe 
this  desire  to  inherited  habit,  in  association  with  the 
nursing  and  tending  of  our  children,  and  with  the  mutual 
caresses  of  lovers. 

With  the  lower  animals  we  see  the  same  principle  of 
pleasure  derived  from  contact  in  association  with  love. 
Dogs  and  cats  manifestly  take  pleasure  in  rubbing 
against  their  masters  and  mistresses,  and  in  being 
rubbed  or  patted  by  them.  Many  kinds  of  monkeys, 
as  I  am  assured  by  the  keepers  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  delight  in  fondling  and  being  fondled  by 
each  other,  and  by  persons  to  whom  they  are  attached. 
Mr.  Bartlett  has  described  to  me  the  behaviour  of  two 
chimpanzees,  rather  older  animals  than  those  generally 
imported  into  this  country,  when  they  were  first  brought 
together.  They  sat  opposite,  touching  each  other  with 
their  much  protruded  lips ;  and  the  one  put  his  hand  on 
the  shoulder  of  the  other.  They  then  mutually  folded 

21  Mr.  Bain  remarks  (*  Mental  and  Moral  Science/  1868,  p.  239), 
'•  Tenderness  is  a  pleasurable  emotion,  variously  stimulated,  whose 
'*  effort  is  to  draw  human  beings  into  mutual  embrace." 


216  EXPRESSION  OF   LOVE,  ETC.  CHAP.  VIII. 

each  other  in  their  arms.  Afterwards  they  stood  up, 
each  with  one  arm  on  the  shoulder  of  the  other,  lifted 
up  their  heads,  opened  their  mouths,  and  yelled  with 
delight. 

We  Europeans  are  so  accustomed  to  kissing  as  a 
mark  of  affection,  that  it  might  be  thought  to  be  innate 
in  mankind ;  but  this  is  not  the  case.  Steele  was  mis- 
taken when  he  said  "  Nature  was  its  author,  and  it 
"  began  with  the  first  courtship."  Jemmy  Button,  the 
Fuegian,  told  me  that  this  practice  was  unknown  in  his 
land.  -It  is  equally  unknown  with  the  New Zealanders, 
Tahitians,  Papuans,  Australians,  Somals  of  Africa,  and 
the  Esquimaux.22  But  it  is  so  far  innate  or  natural 
that  it  apparently  depends  on  pleasure  from  close 
contact  with  a  beloved  person;  and  it  is  replaced  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  by  the  rubbing  of  noses,  as 
with  the  New  Zealanders  and  Laplanders,  by  the  rub- 
bing or  patting  of  the  arms,  breasts,  or  stomachs,  or  by 
one  man  striking  his  own  face  with  the  hands  or  feet  of 
another.  Perhaps  the  practice  of  blowing,  as  a  mark 
of  affection,  on  various  parts  of  the  body  may  depend 
on  the  same  principle.23 

The  feelings  which  are  called  tender  are  difficult  to 
analyse ;  they  seem  to  be  compounded  of  affection,  joy, 
and  especially  of  sympathy.  These  feelings  are  in 
themselves  of  a  pleasurable  nature,  excepting  when  pity 
is  too  deep,  or  horror  is  aroused,  as  in  hearing  of  a  tor- 
tured man  or  animal.  They  are  remarkable  under  our 
present  point  of  view  from  so  readily  exciting  the  secre- 
tion of  tears.  Many  a  father  and  son  have  wept  on 


22  Sir  J.  Lubbock,  *  Prehistoric  Times,'  2nd  edit.  1869,  p.  552,  gives 
full  authorities  for  these  statements.     The  quotation  from  Steele  is 
taken  from  this  work. 

23  See  a  full  account,  with  references,  by  E.  B.  Tylor,  '  Eescarchoa 
into  the  Early  History  of  Mankind,'  2nd  edit.  1870,  p.  51. 


CHAP.  VIII.  EXPRESSION  OF   LOVE,  ETC  217 

meeting  after  a  long  separation,  especially  if  the  meet- 
ing has  been  unexpected.  No  doubt  extreme  joy  by 
itself  tends  to  act  on  the  lacrymal  glands ;  but  on 
such  occasions  as  the  foregoing  vague  thoughts  of  the 
grief  which  would  have  been  felt  had  the  father  and 
son  never  met,  will  probably  have  passed  through  their 
minds ;  and  grief  naturally  leads  to  the  secretion  of 
tears.  Thus  on  the  return  of  Ulysses  : — 

"  Telemachus 
Eose,  and  clung  weeping  round  his  father's  breast. 

There  the  pent  grief  rained  o'er  them,  yearning  thus. 
****** 

Thus  piteously  they  wailed  in  sore  unrest, 
And  on  their  weepings  had  gone  down  the  day, 
But  that  at  last  Telemachus  found  words  to  say." 

Worsley's  Translation  of  the  Odyssey, 

Book  xvi.  st.  27. 

So  again  when  Penelope  at  last  recognised  her  hus- 
band : — 

"  Then  from  her  eyelids  the  quick  tears  did  start 
And  she  ran  to  him  from  her  place,  and  threw 
Her  arms  about  his  neck,  and  a  warm  dew 
Of  kisses  poured  upon  him,  and  thus  spake :" 

Book  xxiii.  st.  27. 

The  vivid  recollection  of  our  former  home,  or  of  long- 
past  happy  days,  readily  causes  the  eyes  to  be  suffused 
with  tears;  but  here,  again,  the  thought  naturally 
occurs  that  these  days  will  never  return.  In  such  cases 
we  may  be  said  to  sympathize  with  ourselves  in  our 
present,  in  comparison  with  our  former,  state.  Sym- 
pathy with  the  distresses  of  others,  even  with  the 
imaginary  distresses  of  a  heroine  in  a  pathetic  story, 
for  whom  we  feel  no  affection,  readily  excites  tears.  So 
does  sympathy  with  the  happiness  of  others,  as  with 
that  of  a  lover,  at  last  successful  after  many  hard  trials 
in  a  well-told  tale. 


218  EXPRESSION   OF   LOVE,   ETC.  C HA?.  VIII. 

Sympathy  appears  to  constitute  a  separate  or  distinct 
emotion ;  and  it  is  especially  apt  to  excite  the  lacrymal 
glands.  This  holds  good  whether  we  give  or  receive 
sympathy.  Every  one  must  have  noticed  how  readily 
children  burst  out  crying  if  we  pity  them  for  some 
small  hurt.  With  the  melancholic  insane,  as  Dr. 
Oichton  Browne  informs  me,  a  kind  word  will  often 
plunge  them  into  unrestrained  weeping.  As  soon  as  we 
express  our  pity  for  the  grief  of  a  friend,  tears  often 
come  into  our  own  eyes.  The  feeling  of  sympathy  is 
commonly  explained  by  assuming  that,  when  we  see  or 
hear  of  suffering  in  another,  the  idea  of  suffering  is 
called  up  so  vividly  in  our  own  minds  that  we  ourselves 
suffer.  But  this  explanation  is  hardly  sufficient,  for  it 
does  not  account  for  the  intimate  alliance  between  sym- 
pathy and  affection.  We  undoubtedly  sympathize  far 
more  deeply  with  a  beloved  than  with  an  indifferent 
person;  and  the  sympathy  of  the  one  gives  us  far 
more  relief  than  that  of  the  other.  Yet  assuredly 
we  can  sympathize  with  those  for  whom  we  feel  no 
affection. 

Why  suffering,  when  actually  experienced  by  our- 
selves, excites  weeping,  has  been  discussed  in  a  former 
chapter.  With  respect  to  joy,  its  natural  and  universal 
expression  is  laughter ;  and  with  all  the  races  of  man 
loud  laughter  leads  to  the  secretion  of  tears  more  freely 
than  does  any  other  cause  excepting  distress.  The  suf- 
fusion of  the  eyes  with  tears,  which  undoubtedly  occurs 
under  great  joy,  though  there  is  no  laughter,  can,  as  it 
seems  to  me,  be  explained  through  habit  and  associa- 
tion on  the  same  principles  as  the  effusion  of  tears  from 
grief,  although  there  is  no  screaming.  Nevertheless  it 
is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  sympathy  with  the  dis- 
tresses of  others  should  excite  tears  more  freely  than 
our  own  distress ;  and  this  certainly  is  the  case.  Many 


CHAP.  VIII.  EXPRESSION  OF  LOVE,  ETC.  219 

a  man,  from  whose  eyes  no  suffering  of  his  own  could 
wring  a  tear,  has  shed  tears  at  the  sufferings  of  a 
beloved  friend.  It  is  still  more  remarkable  that  sym- 
pathy with  the  happiness  or  good  fortune  of  those  whom 
we  tenderly  love  should  lead  to  the  same  result,  whilst 
a  similar  happiness  felt  by  ourselves  would  leave  our 
eyes  dry.  We  should,  however,  bear  in  mind  that  the 
long-continued  habit  of  restraint  which  is  so  powerful 
in  checking  the  free  flow  of  tears  from  bodily  pain,  has 
not  been  brought  into  play  in  preventing  a  moderate 
effusion  of  tears  in  sympathy  with  the  sufferings  or 
happiness  of  others. 

Music  has  a  wonderful  power,  as  I  have  elsewhere 
attempted  to  show,24  of  recalling  in  a  vague  and  inde- 
finite manner,  those  strong  emotions  which  were  felt 
during  long-past  ages,  when,  as  is  probable,  our  early 
progenitors  courted  each  other  by  the  aid  of  vocal 
tones.  And  as  several  of  our  strongest  emotions — grief, 
great  joy,  love,  and  sympathy — lead  to  the  free  secre- 
tion of  tears,  it  is  not  surprising  that  music  should  be 
apt  to  cause  our  eyes  to  become  suffused  with  tears, 
especially  when  we  are  already  softened  by  any  of  the 
tenderer  feelings.  Music  often  produces  another  pecu- 
liar effect.  We  know  that  every  strong  sensation, 
emotion,  or  excitement  —  extreme  pain,  rage,  terror, 
joy,  or  the  passion  of  love — all  have  a  special  tendency 
to  cause  the  muscles  to  tremble;  and  the  thrill  or 
slight  shiver  which  runs  down  the  backbone  and  limbs 
of  many  persons  when  they  are  powerfully  affected  by 
music,  seems  to  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  above 
trembling  of  the  body,  as  a  slight  suffusion  of  tears 
from  the  power  of  music  does  to  weeping  from  any 
strong  and  real  emotion. 


24  •  The  Descent  of  Man,'  vol.  ii.  p.  336. 


220  EXPRESSION   OF   DEVOTION.  CHAP.  VIII 

Devotion. — As  devotion  is,  in  some  degree,  related  to 
affection,  though  mainly  consisting  of  reverence,  often 
combined  with  fear,  the  expression  of  this  state  of  mind 
may  here  be  briefly  noticed.  With  some  sects,  both 
past  and  present,  religion  and  love  have  been  strangely 
combined ;  and  it  has  even  been  maintained,  lamentable 
as  the  fact  may  be,  that  the  holy  kiss  of  love  differs  but 
little  from  that  which  a  man  bestows  on  a  woman,  or  a 
woman  on  a  man.25  Devotion  is  chiefly  expressed  by 
the  face  being  directed  towards  the  heavens,  with  the 
eyeballs  upturned.  Sir  C.  Bell  remarks  that,  at  the  ap- 
proach of  sleep,  or  of  a  fainting-fit,  or  of  death,  the 
pupils  are  drawn  upwards  and  inwards ;  and  he  believes 
that  "  when  we  are  wrapt  in  devotional  feelings,  and 
"  outward  impressions  are  unheeded,  the  eyes  are  raised 
"  by  an  action  neither  taught  nor  acquired ; "  and  that 
this  is  due  to  the  same  cause  as  in  the  above  cases.26 
That  the  eyes  are  upturned  during  sleep  is,  as  I  hear  from 
Professor  Donders,  certain.  With  babies,  whilst  sucking 
their  mother's  breast,  this  movement  of  the  eyeballs 
often  gives  to  them  an  absurd  appearance  of  ecstatic 
delight ;  and  here  it  may  be  clearly  perceived  that  a 
struggle  is  going  on  against  the  position  naturally 
assumed  during  sleep.  But  Sir  C.  Bell's  explanation  of 
the  fact,  which  rests  on  the  assumption  that  certain 
muscles  are  more  under  the  control  of  the  will  than 
others  is,  as  I  hear  from  Professor  Donders,  incorrect. 
As  the  eyes  are  often  turned  up  in  prayer,  without 
the  mind  being  so  much  absorbed  in  thought  as  to 
approach  to  the  unconsciousness  of  sleep,  the  movement 
is  probably  a  conventional  one — the  result  of  the 

25  Dr.  Maudsley  has  a  discussion  to   this  effect  in  his  '  Body  and 
Mind,1  1870,  p.  85. 

26  '  The  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  103,  and  '  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions/ 1823,  p.  182. 


CHAP.  VIII.  EXPRESSION  OF   DEVOTION.  221 

common  belief  that  Heaven,  the  source  of  Divine  power 
to  which  we  pray,  is  seated  above  us. 

A  humble  kneeling  posture,  with  the  hands  upturned 
and  palms  joined,  appears  to  us,  from  long  habit,  a 
gesture  so  appropriate  to  devotion,  that  it  might  be 
thought  to  be  innate  ;  but  I  have  not  met  with  any 
evidence  to  this  effect  with  the  various  extra-Euro- 
pean races  of  mankind.  During  the  classical  period 
of  Eoman  history  it  does  not  appear,  as  I  hear  from  an 
excellent  classic,  that  the  hands  were  thus  joined  during 
prayer.  Mr.  Hensleigh  Wedgwood  has  apparently 
given 27  the  true  explanation,  though  this  implies  that 
the  attitude  is  one  of  slavish  subjection.  "  When  the 
"  suppliant  kneels  and  holds  up  his  hands  with  the  palms 
"joined,  he  represents  a  captive  who  proves  the  com- 
"  pleteness  of  his  submission  by  offering  up  his  hands  to 
"  be  bound  by  the  victor.  It  is  the  pictorial  representa- 
tion of  the  Latin  dare  manus,  to  signify  submission.'* 
Hence  it  is  not  probable  that  either  the  uplifting  of  the 
eyes  or  the  joining  of  the  open  hands,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  devotional  feelings,  are  innate  or  truly  express- 
ive actions  ;  and  this  could  hardly  have  been  expected, 
for  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  feelings,  such  as  we 
should  now  rank  as  devotional,  affected  the  hearts  of 
men,  whilst  they  remained  during  past  ages  in  an 
uncivilized  condition. 


"  'Tho  Origin  of  Language,1  1866,  p.  146.  Mr.  Tylor  ('Early 
History  of  Mankind,'  2nd  edit.  1870,  p.  48)  gives  a  more  complex  origin 
to  the  position  of  the  hands  during  prayer. 


222  BEFLECTION.  CHAP.  IX. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

REFLECTION  —MEDITATION — ILL-TEMPER — SULKINESS — • 
DETERMINATION. 

The  act  of  frowning  —  Eeflection  with  an  effort,  or  with  the  per- 
ception of  something  difficult  or  disagreeable  —  Abstracted 
meditation  —  Ill-temper  —  Moroseness  —  Obstinacy  —  Sulkiness 
and  pouting —  Decision  or  determination  —  The  firm  closure  of 
the  mouth. 

THE  corrugators,  by  their  contraction,  lower  the  eye- 
brows and  bring  them  together,  producing  vertical 
furrows  on  the  forehead — that  is,  a  frown.  Sir  C. 
Bell,  who  erroneously  thought  that  the  corrugator  was 
peculiar  to  man,  ranks  it  as  "  the  most  remarkable 
"  muscle  of  the  human  face.  It  knits  the  eyebrows  with 
"  an  energetic  effort,  which,  unaccountably,  but  irre- 
"  sistibly,  conveys  the  idea  of  mind."  Or,  as  he  else- 
where says,  "  when  the  eyebrows  are  knit,  energy  of 
"  mind  is  apparent,  and  there  is  the  mingling  of  thought 
"  and  emotion  with  the  savage  and  brutal  rage  of  the 
"  mere  animal." l  There  is  much  truth  in  these  remarks, 


1  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  pp.  137,  139.  It  is  not  surprising  that 
the  corrugators  should  have  become  much  more  developed  in  man 
than  in  the  anthropoid  apes;  for  they  are  brought  into  incessant 
action  by  him  under  various  circumstances,  and  will  have  been 
strengthened  and  modified  by  the  inherited  effects  of  use.  We  have 
seen  how  important  a  part  they  play,  together  with  the  orbiculares,  in 
protecting  the  eyes  from  being  too  much  gorged  with  blood  during 
violent  expiratory  movements.  When  the  eyes  are  closed  as  quickly 
and  as  forcibly  as  possible,  to  save  them  from  being  injured  by  a  blow, 
the  corrugators  contract.  With  savages  or  other  men  whose  heads  are 
uncovered,  the  eyebrows  are  continually  lowered  and  contracted  to  serve 


CHAT.  IX.  REFLECTION.  223 

but  hardly  the  whole  truth.  Dr.  Duchenne  has  called 
the  eorrugator  the  muscle  of  reflection ; 2  but  this  name, 
without  some  limitation,  cannot  be  considered  as  quite 
correct. 

A  man  may  be  absorbed  in  the  deepest  thought, 
and  his  brow  will  remain  smooth  until  he  encounters 
some  obstacle  in  his  train  of  reasoning,  or  is  inter- 
rupted by  some  disturbance,  and  then  a  frown  passes 
like  a  shadow  over  his  brow.  A  half-starved  man  may 
think  intently  how  to  obtain  food,  but  he  probably 
will  not  frown  unless  he  encounters  either  in  thought 
or  action  some  difficulty,  or  finds  the  food  when  obtained 
nauseous.  I  have  noticed  that  almost  everyone  in- 
stantly frowns  if  he  perceives  a  strange  or  bad  taste  in 
what  he  is  eating.  I  asked  several  persons,  without 
explaining  my  object,  to  listen  intently  to  a  very  gentle 
tapping  sound,  the  nature  and  source  of  which  they 
all  perfectly  knew,  and  not  one  frowned ;  but  a  man 
who  joined  us,  and  who  could  not  conceive  what  we  were 
all  doing  in  profound  silence,  when  asked  to  listen, 
frowned  much,  though  not  in  an  ill-temper,  and 
said  he  could  riot  in  the  least  understand  what  we  all 
wanted.  Dr.  Piderit,3  who  has  published  remarks  to 
the  same  effect,  adds  that  stammerers  generally  frown 
in  speaking  ;  and  that  a  man  in  doing  even  so  trifling  a 
thing  as  pulling  on  a  boot,  frowns  if  he  finds  it  too 
tight.  Some  persons  are  such  habitual  frowners,  that 


as  a  shade  against  a  too  strong  light ;  and  this  is  effected  partly  by 
the  corrugators.  This  movement  would  have  been  more  especially 
serviceable  to  man,  as  soon  as  his  early  progenitors  held  their  heads 
erect.  Lastly,  Prof.  Bonders  believes  (/Archives  of  Medicine,'  ed.  by 
L.  Beale,  1870,  vol.  v.  p.  34),  that  the  corrugators  are  brought  into 
action  in  causing  the  eyeball  to  advance  in  accommodation  for 
proximity  in  vision. 

2  *  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie  Humaine,'  Album,  Le'gcnde  iii. 

3  «  Mimik  uud  Physiognomik/  s.  46. 


224  REFLECTION.  CHAP.  IX. 

the  mere  effort  of  speaking  almost  always  causes  their 
brows  to  contract. 

Men  of  all  races  frown  when  they  are  in  any  way 
perplexed  in  thought,  as  I  infer  from  the  answers  which 
I  have  received  to  my  queries;  but  I  framed  them 
badly,  confounding  absorbed  meditation  with  perplexed 
reflection.  Nevertheless,  it  is  clear  that  the  Aus- 
tralians, Malays,  Hindoos,  and  Kafirs  of  South  Africa 
frown,  when  they  are  puzzled.  Dobritzhoffer  remarks 
that  the  Guaranies  of  South  America  on  like  occasions 
knit  their  brows.4 

From  these  considerations,  we  may  conclude  that 
frowning  is  not  the  expression  of  simple  reflection,  how- 
ever profound,  or  of  attention,  however  close,  but  of 
something  difficult  or  displeasing  encountered  in  a  train 
of  thought  or  in  action.  Deep  reflection  can,  however^ 
seldom  be  long  carried  on  without  some  difficulty,  so 
that  it  will  generally  be  accompanied  by  a  frown.  Hence 
it  is  that  frowning  commonly  gives  to  the  countenance, 
as  Sir  C.  Bell  remarks,  an  aspect  of  intellectual  energy. 
But  in  order  that  this  effect  may  be  produced,  the 
eyes  must  be  clear  and  steady,  or  they  may  be  cast 
downwards,  as  often  occurs  in  deep  thought.  The 
countenance  must  not  be  otherwise  disturbed,  as  in  the 
case  of  an  ill-tempered  or  peevish  man,  or  of  one  who 
shows  the  effects  of  prolonged  suffering,  with  dulled 
eyes  and  drooping  jaw,  or  who  perceives  a  bad  taste 
in  his  food,  or  who  finds  it  difficult  to  perform  some 
trifling  act,  such  as  threading  a  needle.  In  these 
cases  a  frown  may  often  be  seen,  but  it  will  be  accom- 
panied by  some  other  expression,  which  will  entirely 
prevent  the  countenance  having  an  appearance  of  in- 
tellectual energy  or  of  profound  thought. 

4  '  History  of  the  Abipones,'  Eng.  translat.  vol.  ii.  p.  59,  as  quoted 
by  Lnbbock,  '  Origin  of  Civilisation,'  1870,  p.  355. 


ZHAP.  IX.  REFLECTION.  225 

We  may  now  inquire  how  it  is  that  a  frown  should 
express  the  perception  of  something  difficult  or  dis- 
agreeable, either  in  thought  or  action.  In  the  same 
way  as  naturalists  find  it  advisable  to  trace  the  em- 
bryological  development  of  an  organ  in  order  fully  to 
understand  its  structure,  so  with  the  movements  of  ex- 
pression it  is  advisable  to  follow  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  same  plan.  The  earliest  and  almost  sole  expression 
seen  during  the  first  days  of  infancy,  and  then  often 
exhibited,  is  that  displayed  during  the  act  of  screaming ; 
and  screaming  is  excited,  both  at  first  and  for  some  time 
afterwards,  by  every  distressing  or  displeasing  sensation 
and  emotion, — by  hunger,  pain,  anger,  jealousy,  fear,  &c. 
At  such  times  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  are  strongly 
contracted ;  and  this,  as  I  believe,  explains  to  a  large 
extent  the  act  of  frowning  during  the  remainder  of 
our  lives.  I  repeatedly  observed  my  own  infants, 
from  under  the  age  of  one  week  to  that  of  two  or 
three  months,  and  found  that  when  a  screaming-fit 
came  on  gradually,  the  first  sign  was  the  contraction 
of  the  corrugators,  which  produced  a  slight  frown, 
quickly  followed  by  the  contraction  of  the  other 
muscles  round  the  eyes.  When  an  infant  is  uncom- 
fortable or  unwell,  little  frowns — as  I  record  in  my 
notes— may  be  seen  incessantly  passing  like  shadows 
over  its  face ;  these  being  generally,  but  not  always, 
followed  sooner  or  later  by  a  crying-fit.  For  instance,  I 
watched  for  some  time  a  baby,  between  seven  and  eight 
weeks  old,  sucking  some  milk  which  was  cold,  and  there- 
fore displeasing  to  him ;  and  a  steady  little  frown  was 
maintained  all  the  time.  This  was  never  developed  into 
an  actual  crying-fit,  though  occasionally  every  stage  of 
close  approach  could  be  observed. 

As  the  habit  of  contracting  the  brows  has  been 
followed  by  infants  during  innumerable  generations, 


226  REFLECTION.  CHAP.  IX. 

at  the  commencement  of  every  crying  or  screaming 
fit,  it  has  become  firmly  associated  with  the  incipient 
sense  of  something  distressing  or  disagreeable.  Hence 
under  similar  circumstances  it  would  bo  apt  to  be 
continued  during  maturity,  although  never  then  de- 
veloped into  a  crying-fit.  Screaming  or  weeping 
begins  to  be  voluntarily  restrained  at  an  early  period 
of  life,  whereas  frowning  is  hardly  ever  restrained  at 
any  age.  It  is  perhaps  worth  notice  that  with  children 
much  given  to  weeping,  anything  which  perplexes  their 
minds,  and  which  would  cause  most  other  children 
merely  to  frown,  readily  makes  them  weep.  So  with 
certain  classes  of  the  insane,  any  effort  of  mind,  however 
slight,  which  with  an  habitual  frowner  would  cause  a 
slight  frown,  leads  to  their  weeping  in  an  unrestrained 
manner.  It  is  not  more  surprising  that  the  habit  of 
contracting  the  brows  at  the  first  perception  of  some- 
thing distressing,  although  gained  during  infancy,  should 
be  retained  during  the  rest  of  our  lives,  than  that  many 
other  associated  habits  acquired  at  an  early  age  should 
be  permanently  retained  both  by  man  and  the  lower 
animals.  For  instance,  full-grown  cats,  when  feeling 
warm  and  comfortable,  often  retain  the  habit  of  alter- 
nately protruding  their  fore-feet  with  extended  toes, 
which  habit  they  practised  for  a  definite  purpose  whilst 
sucking  their  mothers. 

Another  and  distinct  cause  has  probably  strengthened 
the  habit  of  frowning,  whenever  the  mind  is  intent  on 
any  subject  and  encounters  some  difficulty.  Vision  is 
the  most  important  of  all  the  senses,  and  during 
primeval  times  the  closest  attention  must  have  been 
incessantly  directed  towards  distant  objects  for  the 
sake  of  obtaining  prey  and  avoiding  danger.  I  re- 
member being  struck,  whilst  travelling  in  parts  of 
South  America,  which  were  dangerous  from  the  presence 


CHAP.  IX.  REFLECTION.  227 

of  Indians,  how  incessantly,  yet  as  it  appeared  uncon- 
sciously, the  half-wild  Gauchos  closely  scanned  the 
whole  horizon.  Now,  when  any  one  with  no  covering 
on  his  head  (as  must  have  been  aboriginally  the  case 
with  mankind),  strives  to  the  utmost  to  distinguish 
in  broad  daylight,  and  especially  if  the  sky  is  bright,  a 
distant  object,  he  almost  invariably  contracts  his  brows 
to  prevent  the  entrance  of  too  much  light ;  the  lower 
eyelids,  cheeks,  and  upper  Up  being  at  the  same  time 
raised,  so  as  to  lessen  the  orifice  of  the  eyes.  I  have 
purposely  asked  several  persons,  young  and  old,  to  look, 
under  the  above  circumstances,  at  distant  objects,  making 
them  believe  that  I  only  wished  to  test  the  power  of 
their  vision ;  and  they  all  behaved  in  the  manner  just 
described.  Some  of  them,  also,  put  their  open,  flat 
hands  over  their  eyes  to  keep  out  the  excess  of  light. 
Gratiolet,  after  making  some  remarks  to  nearly  the 
same  effect,5  says,  "  Ce  sont  la  des  attitudes  de  vision 
"  difficile."  He  concludes  that  the  muscles  round  the 
eyes  contract  partly  for  the  sake  of  excluding  too 
much  light  (which  appears  to  me  the  more  important 
end),  and  partly  to  prevent  all  rays  striking  the  retina, 
except  those  which  come  direct  from  the  object  that 
is  scrutinized.  Mr.  Bowman,  whom  I  consulted  on  this 
point,  thinks  that  the  contraction  of  the  surrounding 
muscles  may,  in  addition,  "  partly  sustain  the  consensual 
"  movements  of  the  two  eyes,  by  giving  a  firmer  support 
"  while  the  globes  are  brought  to  binocular  vision  by 
"  their  own  proper  muscles." 

As  the  effort  of  viewing  with  care  under  a  bright 
light  a  distant  object  is  both  difficult  and  irksome,  and 


5  '  De  la  Physionomie,'  pp.  15,  144,  146.  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer 
accounts  for  frowning  exclusively  by  the  habit  of  contracting  the 
brows  as  a  shade  to  the  eyes  in  a  bright  light :  see  '  Principles  of 
Psychology,'  2nd  edit.  1872,  p.  346. 


228  MEDITATION.  CHAP.  IX. 

as  tins  effort  lias  been  habitually  accompanied,  during 
numberless  generations,  by  the  contraction  of  the  eye- 
brows, the  habit  of  frowning  will  thus  have  been  much 
strengthened;  although  it  was  originally  practised 
during  infancy  from  a  quite  independent  cause,  namely, 
as  the  first  step  in  the  protection  of  the  eyes  during 
screaming.  There  is,  indeed,  much  analogy,  as  far 
as  the  state  of  the  mind  is  concerned,  between  intently 
scrutinizing  a  distant  object,  and  following  out  an  ob- 
scure train  of  thought,  or  performing  some  little  and 
troublesome  mechanical  work.  The  belief  that  the 
habit  of  contracting  the  brows  is  continued  when 
there  is  no  need  whatever  to  exclude  too  much  light, 
receives  support  from  the  cases  formerly  alluded  to,  in 
which  the  eyebrows  or  eyelids  are  acted  on  under 
certain  circumstances  in  a  useless  manner,  from  having 
been  similarly  used,  under  analogous  circumstances, 
for  a  serviceable  purpose.  For  instance,  we  voluntarily 
close  our  eyes  when  we  do  not  wish  to  see  any  object, 
and  we  are  apt  to  close  them,  when  we  reject  a  pro- 
position, as  if  we  could  not  or  would  not  see  it;  or 
when  we  think  about  something  horrible.  We  raise 
our  eyebrows  when  we  wish  to  see  quickly  all  round 
us,  and  we  often  do  the  same,  when  we  earnestly 
desire  to  remember  something ;  acting  as  if  we  endea- 
voured to  see  it. 

Abstraction.  Meditation. — When  a  person  is  lost  in 
thought  with  his  mind  absent,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes 
said,  "  when  he  is  in  a  brown  study,"  he  does  not 
frown,  but  his  eyes  appear  vacant.  The  lower  eyelids 
are  generally  raised  and  wrinkled,  in  the  same  manner 
as  when  a  short-sighted  person  tries  to  distinguish  a 
distant  object ;  and-  the  upper  orbicular  muscles  are  at 
the  same  time  slightly  contracted.  The  wrinkling  of 


CHAP.  IX.  MEDITATION.  229 

the  lower  eyelids  under  these  circumstances  has  been 
observed  with  some  savages,  as  by  Mr.  Dyson  Lacy 
with  the  Australians  of  Queensland,  and  several  times 
by  Mr.  Geach  with  the  Malays  of  the  interior  of 
Malacca.  What  the  meaning  or  cause  of  this  action 
may  be,  cannot  at  present  be  explained ;  but  here  we 
have  another  instance  of  movement  round  the  eyes  in 
relation  to  the  state  of  the  mind. 

The  vacant  expression  of  the  eyes  is  very  peculiar,  and 
at  once  shows  when  a  man  is  completely  lost  in  thought. 
Professor  Bonders  has,  with  his  usual  kindness,  investi- 
gated this  subject  for  me.  He  has  observed  others  in 
this  condition,  and  has  been  himself  observed  by  Pro- 
fessor Engelmann.  The  eyes  are  not  then  fixed  on  any 
object,  and  therefore  not,  as  I  had  imagined,  on  some 
distant  object.  The  lines  of  vision  of  the  two  eyes 
even  often  become  slightly  divergent ;  the  divergence, 
if  the  head  be  held  vertically,  with  the  plane  of  vision 
horizontal,  amounting  to  an  angle  of  2°  as  a  maximum. 
This  was  ascertained  by  observing  the  crossed  double 
image  of  a  distant  object.  When  the  head  droops  for- 
ward, as  often  occurs  with  a  man  absorbed  in  thought, 
owing  to  the  general  relaxation  of  his  muscles,  if  the 
plane  of  vision  be  still  horizontal,  the  eyes  are  neces- 
sarily a  little  turned  upwards,  and  then  the  divergence 
is  as  much  as  3°,  or  3°  5' :  if  the  eyes  are  turned  still 
more  upwards,  it  amounts  to  between  6°  and  7°.  Pro- 
fessor Bonders  attributes  this  divergence  to  the  almost 
complete  relaxation  of  certain  muscles  of  the  eyes,  which 
would  be  apt  to  follow  from  the  mind  being  wholly 
absorbed.6  The  active  condition  of  the  muscles  of  the 


•  Gratiolet  remarks  (De  la  Phys.  p.  35),  "  Quand  1'attention  est 
"  fixee  sur  quelque  image  interieure,  1'ceil  regarde  dans  le  vide  et 
"  s'associe  automatiquement  a  la  contemplation  do  1'esprit "  But  this 
view  hardly  deserves  to  be  called  an  explanation. 


230  ILL-TEMPER.  CHAP.  IX. 

eyes  is  that  of  convergence  ;  and  Professor  Donders  re- 
marks, as  bearing  on  their  divergence  during  a  period  of 
complete  abstraction,  that  when  one  eye  becomes  blind, 
it  almost  always,  after  a  short  lapse  of  time,  deviates 
outwards ;  for  its  muscles  are  no  longer  used  in  moving 
the  eyeball  inwards  for  the  sake  of  binocular  vision. 

Perplexed  reflection  is  often  accompanied  by  certain 
movements  or  gestures.  At  such  times  we  commonly 
raise  our  hands  to  our  foreheads,  mouths,  or  chins ;  but 
we  do  not  act  thus,  as  far  as  I  have  seen,  when  we  are 
quite  lost  in  meditation,  and  no  difficulty  is  encountered. 
Plautus,  describing  in  one  of  his  plays7  a  puzzled 
man,  says,  "  Now  look,  he  has  pillared  his  chin  upon 
"  his  hand."  Even  so  trifl  ing  and  apparently  unmeaning 
a  gesture  as  the  raising  of  the  hand  to  the  face  has 
been  observed  with  some  savages.  Mr.  J.  Mansel  Weale 
has  seen  it  with  the  Kafirs  of  South  Africa;  and  the 
native  chief  G-aika  adds,  that  men  then  "sometimes 
"  pull  their  beards."  Mr.  Washington  Matthews,  who 
attended  to  some  of  the  wildest  tribes  of  Indians  in  the 
western  regions  of  the  United  States,  remarks  that 
he  has  seen  them  when  concentrating  their  thoughts, 
bring  their  "hands,  usually  the  thumb  and  index 
"finger,  in  contact  with  some  part  of  the  face,  com- 
"  monly  the  upper  lip."  We  can  understand  why  the 
forehead  should  be  pressed  or  rubbed,  as  deep  thought 
tries  the  brain ;  but  why  the  hand  should  be  raised  to 
the  mouth  or  face  is  far  from  clear. 

Hi-temper.  —  We  have  seen  that  frowning  is  the 
natural  expression  of  some  difficulty  encountered,  or  of 
something  disagreeable  experienced  either  in  thought  or 
action,  and  he  whose  mind  is  often  and  readily  affected 

7  '  Miles  Gloriosus/  act  ii.'sc.  2. 


ILL-TEMPER.  231 

in  this  way,  will  be  apt  to  be  ill-tempered,  or  slightly 
angry,  or  peevish,  and  will  commonly  show  it  by 
frowning.  But  a  cross  expression,  due  to  a  frown,  may 
be  counteracted,  if  the  mouth  appears  sweet,  from  being 
habitually  4rawn  into  a  smile,  and  the  eyes  are  bright 
and  cheerful.  So  it  will  be  if  the  eye  is  clear  and 
steady,  and  there  is  the  appearance  of  earnest  reflec- 
tion. Frowning,  with  some  depression  of  the  corners 
of  the  mouth,  which  is  a  sign  of  grief,  gives  an  air  of 
peevishness.  If  a  child  (see  Plate  IV.,  fig.  2) 8  frowns 
much  whilst  crying,  but  does  not  strongly  contract  in 
the  usual  manner  the  orbicular  muscles,  a  well-marked 
expression  of  anger  or  even  of  rage,  together  with 
misery,  is  displayed. 

If  the  whole  frowning  brow  be  drawn  much  down- 
ward by  the  contraction  of  the  pyramidal  muscles  of 
the  nose,  which  produces  transverse  wrinkles  or  folds 
across  the  base  of  the  nose,  the  expression  becomes 
one  of  moroseness.  Duchenne  believes  that  the  con- 
traction of  this  muscle,  without  any  frowning,  gives  the 
appearance  of  extreme  and  aggressive  hardness.9  But 
I  much  doubt  whether  this  is  a  true  or  natural  ex- 
pression. I  have  shown  Duchenne's  photograph  of  a 
young  man,  with  this  muscle  strongly  contracted  by 
means  of  galvanism,  to  eleven  persons,  including  some 
artists,  and  none  of  them  could  form  an  idea  what 
was  intended,  except  one,  a  girl,  who  answered 
correctly,  "  surly  reserve."  When  I  first  looked  at  this 
photograph,  knowing  what  was  intended,  my  imagina- 
tion added,  as  I  believe,  what  was  necessary,  namely, 


8  The  original  photograph  by  Herr  Kindermann  is  much   more 
expressive  than  this  copy,  as  it  shows  the  frown  on  the  brow  more 
plainly. 

9  '  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie   Humaine,'  Album,  Legende  iv. 
figs.  16-18. 


232  SULKINESS.  CHAP.  IX. 

a  frowning  brow;  and  consequently  the  expression 
appeared  to  me  true  and  extremely  morose. 

A  firmly  closed  mouth,  in  addition  to  a  lowered  and 
frowning  brow,  gives  determination  to  the  expression, 
or  may  make  it  obstinate  and  sullen.  How  it  comes 
that  the  firm  closure  of  the  mo  ith  gives  the  appear- 
ance of  determination  will  presently  be  discussed.  An 
expression  of  sullen  obstinacy  has  been  clearly  recog- 
nized by  my  informants,  in  the  natives  of  six  different 
regions  of  Australia.  It  is  well  marked,  according  to 
Mr.  Scott,  with  the  Hindoos.  It  has  been  recognized 
with  the  Malays,  Chinese,  Kafirs,  Abyssinians,  and  in 
a  conspicuous  degree,  according  to  Dr.  Kothrock,  with 
the  wild  Indians  of  North  America,  and  according  to 
Mr.  D.  Forbes,  with  the  Aymaras  of  Bolivia.  I  have 
also  observed  it  with  the  Araucanos  of  southern  Chili. 
Mr.  Dyson  Lacy  remarks  that  the  natives  of  Australia, 
when  in  this  frame  of  mind,  sometimes  fold  their  arms 
across  their  breasts,  an  attitude  which  may  be  seen 
with  us.  A  firm  determination,  amounting  to  obsti- 
nacy, is,  also,  sometimes  expressed  by  both  shoulders 
being  kept  raised,  the  meaning  of  which  gesture  will 
be  explained  in  the  following  chapter. 

With  young  children  sulkiness  is  shown  by  pouting, 
or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  "  making  a  snout."10 
When  the  corners  of  the  mouth  are  much  depressed, 
the  lower  lip  is  a  little  everted  and  protruded;  and 
this  is  likewise  called  a  pout.  But  the  pouting  here  re- 
ferred to,  consists  of  the  protrusion  of  both  lips  into  a 
tubular  form,  sometimes  to  such  an  extent  as  to  project 
as  far  as  the  end  of  the  nose,  if  this  be  short.  Pouting 
is  generally  accompanied  by  frowning,  and  sometimes 
by  the  utterance  of  a  booing  or  whooing  noise.  This 


10  Kensleigli  Wedgwood  on  '  The  Origin  of  Language,'  1866,  p.  78. 


CHAP.  IX.  SULKINESS.  233 

expression  is  remarkable,  as  almost  the  sole  one,  as  far 
as  I  know,  which  is  exhibited  much  more  plainly  during 
childhood,  at  least  with  Europeans,  than  during  ma- 
turity. There  is,  however,  some  tendency  to  the 
protrusion  of  the  lips  with  the  adults  of  all  races  under 
the  influence  of  great  rage.  Some  children  pout  when 
they  are  shy,  and  they  can  then  hardly  be  called 
sulky. 

From  inquiries  which  I  have  made  in  several  large 
families,  pouting  does  not  seem  very  common  with 
European  children;  but  it  prevails  throughout  the 
world,  and  must  be  both  common  and  strongly  marked 
with  most  savage  races,  as  it  has  caught  the  atten- 
tion of  many  observers.  It  has  been  noticed  in  eight 
different  districts  of  Australia;  and  one  of  my  in- 
formants remarks  how  greatly  the  lips  of  the  children 
are  then  protruded.  Two  observers  have  seen  pouting 
with  the  children  of  Hindoos ;  three,  with  those  of  the 
Kafirs  and  Fingoes  of  South  Africa,  and  with  the 
Hottentots;  and  two,  with  the  children  of  the  wild 
Indians  of  North  America.  Pouting  has  also  been 
observed  with  the  Chinese;  Abyssinians,  Malays  of 
Malacca,  Dyaks  of  Borneo,  and  often  with  the  New 
Zealanders.  Mr.  Mansel  Weale  informs  me  that  he 
has  seen  the  lips  much  protruded,  not  only  with  the 
children  of  the  Kafirs,  but  with  the  adults  of  both  sexes 
when  sulky ;  and  Mr.  Stack  has  sometimes  observed 
the  same  thing  with  the  men,  and  very  frequently  with 
the  women  of  New  Zealand.  A  trace  of  the  same 
expression  may  occasionally  be  detected  even  with  adult 
Europeans 

AYe  thus  see  that  the  protrusion  of  the  lips,  espe- 
cially with  young  children,  is  characteristic  of  sulkiness 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  world.  Tfyis  move- 
ment apparently  results  from  the  retention,  chiefly 
11 


234  SULKINESS.  CHAP.  IX. 

during  youth,  of  a  primordial  habit,  or  from  an  occa- 
sional reversion  to  it.  Young  orangs  and  chimpanzees 
protrude  their  lips  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  as 
described  in  a  former  chapter,  when  they  are  dis- 
contented, somewhat  angry,  or  sulky ;  also  when  they 
are  surprised,  a  little  frightened,  and  even  when 
slightly  pleased.  Their  mouths  are  protruded  appa- 
rently for  the  sake  of  making  the  various  noises  proper 
to  these  several  states  of  mind;  and  its  shape,  as  I 
observed  with  the  chimpanzee,  differed  slightly  when 
the  cry  of  pleasure  and  that  of  anger  were  uttered. 
As  soon  as  these  animals  become  enraged,  the  shape 
of  the  mouth  wholly  changes,  and  the  teeth  are  ex- 
posed. The  adult  orang  when  wounded  is  said  to 
emit  "a  singular  cry,  consisting  at  first  of  high  notes, 
"  which  at  length  deepen  into  a  low  roar.  While 
"  giving  out  the  high  notes  he  thrusts  out  his  lips 
"  into  a  funnel  shape,  but  in  uttering  the  low  notes 
"  he  holds  his  mouth  wide  open."  u  With  the  gorilla, 
the  lower  lip  is  said  to  be  capable  of  great  elonga- 
tion. If  then  our  semi-human  progenitors  protruded 
their  lips  when  sulky  or  a  little  angered,  in  the  same 
manner  as  do  the  existing  anthropoid  apes,  it  is  not 
an  anomalous,  though  a  curious  fact,  that  our  children 
should  exhibit,  when  similarly  affected,  a  trace  of  the 
same  expression,  together  with  some  tendency  to  utter 
a  noise.  For  it  is  not  at  all  unusual  for  animals  to 
retain,  more  or  less  perfectly,  during  early  youth,  and 
subsequently  to  lose,  characters  which  were  aboriginally 
possessed  by  their  adult  progenitors,  and  which  are  still 
retained  by  distinct  species,  their  near  relations. 

Nor  is  it   an  anomalous  fact   that  the   children  of 


11  Mulloi,  as  quoted  by  Huxley,  'Man's  Pla-ie  in   Nature,'  1803, 
p.  38. 


CHAP.  IX.  DECISION.  235 

savages  should  exhibit  a  stronger  tendency  to  protrude 
their  lips,  when  sulky,  than  the  children  of  civilized 
Europeans ;  for  the  essence  of  savagery  seems  to  consist 
in  the  retention  of  a  primordial  condition,  and  this  occa- 
sionally holds  good  even  with  bodily  peculiarities.12  It 
may  be  objected  to  this  view  of  the  origin  of  pouting, 
that  the  anthropoid  apes  likewise  protrude  their  lips 
when  astonished  and  even  when  a  little  pleased ;  whilst 
with  us  this  expression  is  generally  confined  to  a  sulky 
frame  of  mind.  But  we  shall  see  in  a  future  chapter 
that  with  men  of  various  races  surprise  does  sometimes 
lead  to  a  slight  protrusion  of  the  lips,  though  great 
surprise  or  astonishment  is  more  commonly  shown  by 
the  mouth  being  widely  opened.  As  when  we  smile 
or  laugh  we  draw  back  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  we 
have  lost  any  tendency  to  protrude  the  lips,  when 
pleased,  if  indeed  our  early  progenitors  thus  expressed 
pleasure. 

A  little  gesture  made  by  sulky  children  may  here  be 
noticed,  namely,  their  "  showing  a  cold  shoulder."  This 
has  a  different  meaning,  as,  I  believe,  from  the  keeping 
both  shoulders  raised.  A  cross  child,  sitting  on  its 
parent's  knee,  will  lift  up  the  near  shoulder,  then  jerk 
it  away  as  if  from  a  caress,  and  afterwards  give  a  back- 
ward push  with  it,  as  if  to  push  away  the  offender. 
I  have  seen  a  child,  standing  at  some  distance  from 
any  one,  clearly  express  its  feelings  by  raising  one 
shoulder,  giving  it  a  little  backward  movement,  and 
then  turning  away  its  whole  body. 

Decision  or  determination. — The  firm  closure  of  the 
mouth  tends  to  give  an  expression  of  determination 


12  I  have  given  several  instances  in  ray  '  Descent  of  Man,'  vol.  i. 
cliap.  iv. 


236  DECISION.  CHAP.  IX. 

or  decision  to  the  countenance.  No  determined  man 
probably  ever  had  an  habitually  gaping  mouth.  Hence, 
also,  a  small  and  weak  lower  jaw,  which  seems  to 
indicate  that  the  mouth  is  not  habitually  and  firmly 
closed,  is  commonly  thought  to  be  characteristic  of 
feebleness  of  character.  A  prolonged  effort  of  any 
kind,  whether  of  body  or  mind,  implies  previous  de- 
termination; and  if  it  can  be  shown  that  the  mouth 
is  generally  closed  with  firmness  before  and  during 
a  great  and  continued  exertion  of  the  muscular 
system,  then,  through  the  principle  of  association,  the 
mouth  would  almost  certainly  be  closed  as  soon  as  any 
determined  resolution  was  taken.  Now  several  observers 
have  noticed  that  a  man,  in  commencing  any  violent  mus- 
cular effort,  invariably  first  distends  his  lungs  with  air, 
and  then  compresses  it  by  the  strong  contraction  of  the 
muscles  of  the  chest ;  and  to  effect  this  the  mouth  must 
be  firmly  closed.  Moreover,  as  soon  as  the  man  is 
compelled  to  draw  breath,  he  still  keeps  his  chest  as 
much  distended  as  possible. 

Various  causes  have  been  assigned  for  this  manner  of 
acting.  Sir  C.  Bell  maintains 13  that  the  chest  is  dis- 
tended with  air,  and  is  kept  distended  at  such  times,  in 
order  to  give  a  fixed  support  to  the  muscles  which  are 
thereto  attached.  Hence,  as  he  remarks,  when  two  men 
are  engaged  in  a  deadly  contest,  a  terrible  silence 
prevails,  broken  only  by  hard  stifled  breathing.  There 
is  silence,  because  to  expel  the  air  in  the  utterance  of 
any  sound  would  be  to  relax  the  support  for  the  muscles 
of  the  arms.  If  an  outcry  is  heard,  supposing  the  struggle 
to  take  place  in  the  dark,  we  at  once  know  that  one 
of  the  two  has  given  up  in  despair. 

Gratiolet  admits14  that  when  a  man  has  to  struggle 

13  <  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  190. 

14  '  De  la  Physionomie/  pp.  118-121. 


CHAP.  IX.  DECISION.  237 

with  another  to  his  utmost,  or  has  to  support  a  great 
weight,  or  to  keep  for  a  long  time  the  same  forced  atti- 
tude, it  is  necessary  for  him  first  to  make  a  deep  inspi- 
ration, and  then  to  cease  breathing ;  but  he  thinks  that 
Sir  C.  Bell's  explanation  is  erroneous.  He  maintains 
that  arrested  respiration  retards  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  of  which  I  believe  there  is  no  doubt,  and  he 
adduces  some  curious  evidence  from  the  structure  of  the 
lower  animals,  showing,  on  the  one  hand,  that  a  retarded 
circulation  is  necessary  for  prolonged  muscular  exertion, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  a  rapid  circulation  is  neces- 
sary for  rapid  movements.  According  to  this  view,  when 
we  commence  any  great  exertion,  we  close  our  mouths 
and  stop  breathing,  in  order  to  retard  the  circulation  of 
the  blood.  Gratiolet  sums  up  the  subject  by  saying, 
"  C'est  la  la  vraie  theorie  de  1'effort  continu ;"  but  how 
far  this  theory  is  admitted  by  other  physiologists  I 
do  not  know. 

Dr.  Piderit  accounts15  for  the  firm  closure  of  the 
mouth  dining  strong  muscular  exertion,  on  the  principle 
that  the  influence  of  the  will  spreads  to  other  muscles 
besides  those  necessarily  brought  into  action  in  making 
any  particular  exertion;  and  it  is  natural  that  the 
muscles  of  respiration  and  of  the  mouth,  from  being  so 
habitually  used,  should  be  especially  liable  to  be  thus 
acted  on.  It  appears  to  me  that  there  probably  is  some 
truth  in  this  view,  for  we  are  apt  to  press  the  teeth  hard 
together  during  violent  exertion,  and  this  is  not  re- 
quisite to  prevent  expiration,  whilst  the  muscles  of  the 
chest  are  strongly  contracted. 

Lastly,  when  a  man  has  to  perform  some  delicate  and 
difficult  operation,  not  requiring  the  exertion  of  any 
strength,  he  nevertheless  generally  closes  his  mouth  and 


15  '  Mimik  untl  Physiognomik,'  a.  79. 


238  DECISION.  CHAP.  IX. 

ceases  lor  a  time  to  breathe ;  but  he  acts  thus  in  order 
that  the  movements  of  his  chest  may  not  disturb  those 
of  his  arms.  A  person,  for  instance,  whilst  threading  a 
needle,  may  be  seen  to  compress  his  lips  and  either  to 
stop  breathing,  or  to  breathe  as  quietly  as  possible.  So 
it  was,  as  formerly  stated,  with  a  young  and  sick  chim- 
panzee, whilst  it  amused  itself  by  killing  flies  with  its 
knuckles,  as  they  buzzed  about  on  the  window-panes. 
To  perform  an  action,  however  trifling,  if  difficult,  implies 
some  amount  of  previous  determination. 

There  appears  nothing  improbable  in  all  the  above 
assigned  causes  having  come  into  play  in  different 
degrees,  either  conjointly  or  separately,  on  various  occa- 
sions. The  result  would  be  a  well-established  habit, 
now  perhaps  inherited,  of  firmly  closing  the  mouth  at 
the  commencement  of  and  during  any  violent  and  pro- 
longed exertion,  or  any  delicate  operation.  Through 
the  principle  of  association  there  would  also  be  a  strong 
tendency  towards  this  same  habit,  as  soon  as  the  mind 
had  resolved  on  any  particular  action  or  line  of  con- 
duct, even  before  there  was  any  bodily  exertion,  or  if 
none  were  requisite.  The  habitual  and  firm  closure 
of  the  mouth  would  thus  come  to  show  decision  of 
character ;  and  decision  readily  passes  into  obstinacy. 


CHAT.  X.  ANGER.  239 


CHAPTEK    X. 
HATRED  AND  ANGER. 

Hatred  —  Rage,  effects  of  on  the  system  —  Uncovering  of  the  teeth 
—  Rage  in  the  insane  —  Anger  and  indignation  —  As  expressed 
by  the  various  races  of  man  —  Sneering  and  defiance  —  The  un- 
covering of  the  canine  tooth  on  one  side  of  the  face. 

IP  we  have  suffered  or  expect  to  suffer  some  wilful 
injury  from  a  man,  or  if  he  is  in  any  way  offensive  to 
us,  we  dislike  him ;  and  dislike  easily  rises  into  hatred. 
Such  feelings,  if  experienced  in  a  moderate  degree,  are 
not  clearly  expressed  by  any  movement  of  the  body 
or  features,  excepting  perhaps  by  a  certain  gravity 
of  behaviour,  or  by  some  ill-temper.  Few  individuals, 
however,  can  long  reflect  about  a  hated  person,  without 
feeling  and  exhibiting  signs  of  indignation  or  rage. 
But  if  the  offending  person  be  quite  insignificant,  we 
experience  merely  disdain  or  contempt.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  is  all-powerful,  then  hatred  passes  into 
terror,  as  when  a  slave  thinks  about  a  cruel  master,  or 
a  savage  about  a  bloodthirsty  malignant  deity.1  Most 
of  our  emotions  are  so  closely  connected  with  their  ex- 
pression, that  they  hardly  exist  if  the  body  remains 
passive — the  nature  of  the  expression  depending  in 
chief  part  on  the  nature  of  the  actions  which  have 
been  habitually  performed  under  this  particular  state  of 
the  mind.  A  man,  for  instance,  may  know  that  his  life 
is  in  the  extremest  peril,  and  may  strongly  desire  to 


1  See  some  remarks  to  this  effect  by  Mr.  Bain,  *  The  Emotions  and 
the  Will/  2iid  edit.  1865,  p.  127. 


240  ANGER.  CHAT.  X. 

save  it ;  yet,  as  Louis  XVI.  said,  when  surrounded  by 
a  fierce  mob,  "  Am  I  afraid  ?  feel  my  pulse."  So  a  man 
may  intensely  hate  another,  but  until  his  bodily  frame 
is  affected,  he  cannot  be  said  to  be  enraged. 

Rage. — I  have  already  had  occasion  to  treat  of  this 
emotion  in  the  third  chapter,  when  discussing  the  direct 
influence  of  the  excited  sensorium  on  the  body,  in  com- 
bination with  the  effects  of  habitually  associated  actions. 
Rage  exhibits  itself  in  the  most  diversified  manner. 
The  heart  and  circulation  are  always  affected ;  the  face 
reddens  or  becomes  purple,  with  the  veins  on  the  fore- 
head and  neck  distended.  The  reddening  of  the  skin 
has  been  observed  with  the  copper-coloured  Indians 
of  South  America,2  and  even,  as  it  is  said,  on  the  white 
cicatrices  left  by  old  wounds  on  negroes.3  Monkeys 
also  redden  from  passion.  With  one  of  my  own  infants, 
under  four  months  old,  I  repeatedly  observed  that  the 
first  symptom  of  an  approaching  passion  was  the  rushing 
of  the  blood  into  his  bare  scalp.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  action  of  the  heart  is  sometimes  so  much  impeded  by 
great  rage,  that  the  countenance  becomes  pallid  or  livid,4 
and  not  a  few  men  with  heart-disease  have  dropped 
down  dead  under  this  powerful  emotion. 

The  respiration  is  likewise  affected ;  the  chest  heaves, 
and  the  dilated  nostrils  quiver.5  As  Tennyson  writes, 
"  sharp  breaths  of  anger  puffed  her  fairy  nostrils  out." 


2  Rengger,  Naturgesch.  der  Saugethiere  von  Paraguay,  1830,  s.  3. 

8  Sir  0.  Bell,  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  96.  On  the  other  hand, 
Dr.  Burgess  ('  Physiology  of  Blushing,'  1839,  p.  31)  speaks  of  the 
reddening  of  a  cicatrix  in  a  negress  as  of  the  nature  of  a  blush. 

4  Moreau  and  Gratiolet  have  discussed  the  colour  of  the  face  under 
the  influence  of  intense  passion  :  see  the  edit,  of  1820  of  Lavater  vol. 
iv.  pp.  282  and  300 ;  and  Gratiolet,  *  De  la  Physionomie,'  p.  345. 

6  Sir  C.  Bell  ('  Anatomy  of  Expression/  pp.  91,  107)  has  fully  dis- 
cussed this  subject.  Moreau  remarks  (in  the  edit,  of  1820  of  *  La 
Physionomie,  par  G.  Lavater,'  vol.  iv.  p.  237j,  and  quotes  Portal  in 


CHAP.  X.  ANGER.  241 

Hence  we  have  such  expressions  as  "  breathing  out  ven- 
"  geance,"  and  "  fuming  with  anger."  6 

The  excited  brain  gives  strength  to  the  muscles,  and 
at  the  same  time  energy  to  the  will.  The  body  is  com- 
monly held  erect  ready  for  instant  action,  but  sometimes 
it  is  bent  forward  towards  the  offending  person,  with 
the  limbs  more  or  less  rigid.  The  mouth  is  generally 
closed  with  firmness,  showing  fixed  determination,  and 
the  teeth  are  clenched  or  ground  together.  Such 
gestures  as  the  raising  of  the  arms,  with  the  fists 
clenched,  as  if  to  strike  the  offender,  are  common.  Few 
men  in  a  great  passion,  and  telling  some  one  to  begone, 
can  resist  acting  as  if  they  intended  to  strike  or  push 
the  man  violently  away.  The  desire,  indeed,  to  strike 
often  becomes  so  intolerably  strong,  that  inanimate 
objects  are  struck  or  dashed  to  the  ground ;  but  the 
gestures  frequently  become  altogether  purposeless  or 
frantic.  Young  children,  when  in  a  violent  rage  roll 
on  the  ground  on  their  backs  or  bellies,  screaming, 
kicking,  scratching,  or  biting  everything  within  reach. 
So  it  is,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  Scott,  with  Hindoo  children ; 
and,  as  we  have  seen,  with  the  young  of  the  anthropo- 
morphous apes. 

But  the  muscular  system  is  often  affected  in  a  wholly 
different  way ;  for  trembling  is  a  frequent  consequence 


confirmation,  that  asthmatic  patients  acquire  permanently  expanded 
nostrils,  owing  to  the  habitual  contraction  of  the  elevatory  muscles  of 
the  wings  of  the  nose.  The  explanation  by  Dr.  Piderit  ('  Mimik  und 
Physiognomik,'  s  82)  of  the  distension  of  the  nostrils,  namely,  to  allow 
free  breathing  whilst  the  mouth  is  closed  and  the  teeth  clenched, 
does  not  appear  to  be  nearly  so  correct  as  that  by  Sir  G.  Bell,  who 
attributes  it  to  the  sympathy  (i.e.  habitual  co-action)  of  all  the 
respiratory  muscles.  The  nostrils  of  an  angry  man  may  be  seen  to 
become  dilated,  although  his  mouth  is  open. 

0  Mr.  Wedgwood,  •  On  the  Origin  of  Language,'  I860,  p.  76.  He 
also  observes  that  the  sound  of  hard  breathing  "  is  represented  by  the 
"  syllables  puff,  huff,  whiff,  whence  a  huff  is  a  fit  of  ill- temper." 


242  ANGER.  CHAP.  X. 

of  extreme  rage.  The  paralysed  lips  then  refuse  to  obey 
the  will,  "  and  the  voice  sticks  in  the  throat ;" 7  or  it 
is  rendered  loud,  harsh,  and  discordant.  If  there  be 
much  and  rapid  speaking,  the  mouth  froths.  The  hair 
sometimes  bristles;  but  I  shall  return  to  this  subject 
in  another  chapter,  when  I  treat  of  the  mingled  emo- 
tions of  rage  and  terror.  There  is  in  most  cases  a 
strongly-marked  frown  on  the  forehead ;  for  this  follows 
from  the  sense  of  anything  displeasing  or  difficult, 
together  with  concentration  of  mind.  But  sometimes 
the  brow,  instead  of  being  much  contracted  and  lowered, 
remains  smooth,  with  the  glaring  eyes  kept  widely 
open.  The  eyes  are  always  bright,  or  may,  as  Homer 
expresses  it,  glisten  with  fire.  They  are  sometimes 
bloodshot,  and  are  said  to  protrude  from  their  sockets — 
the  result,  no  doubt,  of  the  head  being  gorged  with  blood, 
as  shown  by  the  veins  being  distended.  According  to 
Gratiolet,8  the  pupils  are  always  contracted  in  rage,  and 
I  hear  from  Dr.  Crichton  Browne  that  this  is  the  case 
in  the  fierce  delirium  of  meningitis ;  but  the  movements 
of  the  iris  under  the  influence  of  the  different  emotions 
is  a  very  obscure  subject. 

Shakspeare  sums  up  the  chief  characteristics  of  rage 
as  follows : — 

ft  In  peace  there's  nothing  so  becomes  a  man, 

As  modest  stillness  and  humility  ; 

But  when  the  blast  of  war  blows  in  our  ears, 

Then  imitate  the  action  of  the  tiger  : 

Stiffen  the  sinews,  summon  up  the  blood, 

Then  lend  the  eye  a  terrible  aspect ; 

Now  set  the  teeth,  and  stretch  the  nostril  wide, 

Hold  hard  the  breath,  and  bend  up  every  spirit 

To  his  full  height  !  On,  on,  you  noblest  English." 

Henry  F.,  act  iii.  sc.  1. 

7  Sir  0.  Bell  ('  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  95)  has  some  excellent 
remarks  on  the  expression  of  rage. 

8  <  De  la  Physionomie,'  18ti5,  p.  346. 


CHAP.  X.  ANGER.  243 

The  lips  are  sometimes  protruded  during  rage  in  a 
manner,  the  meaning  of  which  I  do  not  understand, 
unless  it  depends  on  our  descent  from  some  ape-like 
animal.  Instances  have  been  observed,  not  only  with 
Europeans,  but  with  the  Australians  and  Hindoos. 
The  lips,  however,  are  much  more  commonly  retracted, 
the  grinning  or  clenched  teeth  being  thus  exposed. 
This  has  been  noticed  by  almost  every  one  who  has 
written  on  expression.9  The  appearance  is  as  if  the 
teeth  were  uncovered,  ready  for  seizing  or  tearing 
an  enemy,  though  there  may  be  no  intention  of  acting 
in  this  manner.  Mr.  Dyson  Lacy  has  seen  this  grinning 
expression  with  the  Australians,  when  quarrelling,  and  so 
has  Gaika  with  the  Kafirs  of  South  America.  Dickens,10 
in  speaking  of  an  atrocious  murderer  who  had  just  been 
caught,  and  was  surrounded  by  a  furious  mob,  describes 
"  the  people  as  jumping  up  one  behind  another,  snarling 
"  with  their  teeth,  and  making  at  him  like  wild  beasts.'' 
Everyone  who  has  had  much  to  do  with  young  children 
must  have  seen  how  naturally  they  take  to  biting,  when 
in  a  passion.  It  seems  as  instinctive  in  them  as  in 
young  crocodiles,  who  snap  their  little  jaws  as  soon  as 
they  emerge  from  the  egg. 

A  grinning  expression  and  the  protrusion  of  the  lips 
appear  sometimes  to  go  together.  A  close  observer  says 

9  Sir  C.  Bell,  *  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  177.     Gratiolet  (De  la 
Phys.  p.  369)  says,  "  les  dents  se  decouvrent,  et  imitent  symbolique- 
"  mcnt  1* action  de  dec-hirer  et  de  mordre."   If,  instead  of  using  the  vague 
term  symboliquement,  Gratiolet  had  said  that  the  action  was  a  remnant 
of  a  habit  acquired  during  primeval  times  when  our  semi-human  pro- 
genitors fought  together  with  their  teeth,  like  gorillas  and  orangs  at 
the  present  day,  he  would  have  been  more  intelligible.    Dr.  Piderit 
('Mimik,'  &c.,  s.  82)  also  speaks  of  the  retraction  of  the  upper  lip  during 
rage.     In  an  engraving  of  one  of  Hogarth's  wonderful  pictures,  passion 
is  represented  in  the  plainest  manner  by  the  open  glaring  eyes,  frowning 
forehead,  and  exposed  grinning  teeth. 

10  '  Oliver  Twist,'  vol.  iii.  p.  245. 


244  ANGER.  CHAP.  X. 

that  lie  has  seen  many  instances  of  intense  hatred  (which 
can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  rage,  more  or  less  sup- 
pressed) in  Orientals,  and  once  in  an  elderly  English 
woman.  In  all  these  cases  there  "was  a  grin,  not  a 
"  scowl  —  the  lips  lengthening,  the  cheeks  settling 
"  downwards,  the  eyes  half-closed,  whilst  the  brow 
"  remained  perfectly  calm."  ll 

This  retraction  of  the  lips  and  uncovering  of  the  teeth 
during  paroxysms  of  rage,  as  if  to  bite  the  offender, 
is  so  remarkable,  considering  how  seldom  the  teeth  are 
used  by  men  in  fighting,  that  I  inquired  from  Dr. 
J.  Crichton  Browne  whether  the  habit  was  common 
in  the  insane  whose  passions  are  unbridled.  He  informs 
me  that  he  has  repeatedly  observed  it  both  with  the 
insane  and  idiotic,  and  has  given  me  the  following  illus- 
trations : — 

Shortly  before  receiving  my  letter,  he  witnessed  an 
uncontrollable  outbreak  of  anger  and  delusive  jealousy 
in  an  insane  lady.  At  first  she  vituperated  her  husband, 
and  whilst  doing  so  foamed  at  the  mouth.  Next  she 
approached  close  to  him  with  compressed  lips,  and  a 
virulent  set  frown.  Then  she  drew  back  her  lips,  espe- 
cially the  corners  of  the  upper  lip,  and  showed  her  teeth, 
at  the  same  time  aiming  a  vicious  blow  at  him.  A 
second  case  is  that  of  an  old  soldier,  who,  when  he  is 
requested  to  conform  to  the  rules  of  the  establishment, 
gives  way  to  discontent,  terminating  in  fury.  He  com- 
monly begins  by  asking  Dr.  Browne  whether  he  is  not 
ashamed  to  treat  him  in  such  a  manner.  He  then  swears 
and  blasphemes,  paces  up  and  down,  tosses  his  arms 
wildly  about,  and  menaces  any  one  near  him.  At  last, 
as  his  exasperation  culminates,  he  rushes  up  towards 
Dr.  Browne  with  a  peculiar  sidelong  movement,  shakin^ 


'  The  Spectator,'  July  11,  1868,  p.  819. 


CHAP.  X.  ANGER.  245 

his  doubled  fist,  and  threatening  destruction.  Then  his 
upper  lip  may  be  seen  to  be  raised,  especially  at  the 
corners,  so  that  his  huge  canine  teeth  are  exhibited. 
He  hisses  forth  his  curses  through  his  set  teeth,  and 
his  whole  expression  assumes  the  character  of  extreme 
ferocity.  A  similar  description  is  applicable  to  another 
man,  excepting  that  he  generally  foams  at  the  mouth 
and  spits,  dancing  and  jumping  about  in  a  strange  rapid 
manner,  shrieking  out  his  maledictions  in  a  shrill  fal- 
setto voice. 

Dr.  Brown  also  informs  me  of  the  case  of  an  epileptic 
idiot,  incapable  of  independent  movements,  and  who 
spends  the  whole  day  in  playing  with  some  toys ;  but 
his  temper  is  morose  and  easily  roused  into  fierceness. 
When  any  one  touches  his  toys,  he  slowly  raises  his 
head  from  its  habitual  downward  position,  and  fixes 
his  eyes  on  the  offender,  with  a  tardy  yet  angry  scowl. 
If  the  annoyance  be  repeated,  he  draws  back  his  thick 
lips  and  reveals  a  prominent  row  of  hideous  fangs  (large 
canines  being  especially  noticeable),  and  then  makes  a 
quick  and  cruel  clutch  with  his  open  hand  at  the  offend- 
ing person.  The  rapidity  of  this  clutch,  as  Dr.  Browne 
remarks,  is  marvellous  in  a  being  ordinarily  so  torpid 
that  he  takes  about  fifteen  seconds,  when  attracted 
by  any  noise,  to  turn  his  head  from  one  side  to  the 
other.  If,  when  thus  incensed,  a  handkerchief,  book,  or 
other  article,  be  placed  into  his  hands,  he  drags  it  to  his 
mouth  and  bites  it.  Mr.  Nicol  has  likewise  described 
to  me  two  cases  of  insane  patients,  whose  lips  are  re- 
tracted during  paroxysms  of  rage. 

Dr.  Maudsley,  after  detailing  various  strange  animal- 
like  traits  in  idiots,  asks  whether  these  are  not  due  to 
the  reappearance  of  primitive  instincts — "  a  faint  echo 
"  from  a  far-distant  past,  testifying  to  a  kinship  which 
"  man  has  almost  outgrown."  He  adds,  that  as  every 


246  ANGER.  CHAP.  X. 

human  brain  passes,  in  the  course  of  its  development, 
through  the  same  stages  as  those  occurring  in  the  lower 
vertebrate  animals,  and  as  the  brain  of  an  idiot  is  in  an 
arrested  condition,  we  may  presume  that  it  "  will  mani- 
"  fest  its  most  primitive  functions,  and  no  higher 
"  functions."  Dr.  Maudsley  thinks  that  the  same  view 
may  be  extended  to  the  brain  in  its  degenerated  con- 
dition in  some  insane  patients ;  and  asks,  whence  come 
"  the  savage  snarl,  the  destructive  disposition,  the 
"  obscene  language,  the  wild  howl,  the  offensive  habits, 
"  displayed  by  some  of  the  insane  ?  Why  should  a 
"  human  being,  deprived  of  his  reason,  ever  become  so 
"  brutal  in  character,  as  some  do,  unless  he  has  the 
"  brute  nature  within  him?"  12  This  question  must,  as 
it  would  appear,  be  answered  in  the  affirmative. 

Anger,  indignation. — These  states  of  the  mind  differ 
from  rage  only  in  degree,  and  there  is  no  marked 
distinction  in  their  characteristic  signs.  Under  moderate 
anger  the  action  of  the  heart  is  a  little  increased,  the 
colour  heightened,  and  the  eyes  become  bright.  The 
respiration  is  likewise  a  little  hurried;  and  as  all  the 
muscles  serving  for  this  function  act  in  association, 
the  wings  of  the  nostrils  are  somewhat  raised  to  allow 
of  a  free  indraught  of  air ;  and  this  is  a  highly  charac- 
teristic sign  of  indignation.  The  mouth  is  commonly 
compressed,  and  there  is  almost  always  a  frown  on 
the  brow.  Instead  of  the  frantic  gestures  of  extreme 
rage,  an  indignant  man  unconsciously  throws  himself 
into  an  attitude  ready  for  attacking  or  striking  his 
enemy,  whom  he  will  perhaps  scan  from  head  to  foot  in 
defiance.  He  carries  his  head  erect,  with  his  chest  well 
expanded,  and  the  feet  planted  firmly  on  the  ground. 
He  holds  his  arms  in  various  positions,  with  one  or  both 


12  « Body  and  Mind,'  1870,  pp.  51-53, 


CHAP.  X.  ANGER.  247 

elbows  squared,  or  with  the  arms  rigidly  suspended  by 
his  sides.  With  Europeans  the  fists  are  commonly 
clenched.13  The  figures  1  and  2  in  Plate  VI.  are  fairly 
good  representations  of  men  simulating  indignation. 
Any  one  may  see  in  a  mirror,  if  he  will  vividly  imagine 
that  he  has  been  insulted  and  demands  an  explanation 
in  an  angry  tone  of  voice,  that  he  suddenly  and  uncon- 
sciously throws  himself  into  some  such  attitude. 

Kage,  anger,  and  indignation  are  exhibited  in  nearly 
the  same  manner  throughout  the  world ;  and  the  fol- 
lowing descriptions  may  be  worth  giving  as  evidence  of 
this,  and  as  illustrations  of  some  of  the  foregoing  remarks. 
There  is,  however,  an  exception  with  respect  to  clenching 
the  fists,  which  seems  confined  chiefly  to  the  men  who 
fight  with  their  fists.  With  the  Australians  only  one 
of  my  informants  has  seen  the  fists  clenched.  All  agree 
about  the  body  being  held  erect ;  and  all,  with  two  ex- 
ceptions, state  that  the  brows  are  heavily  contracted. 
Some  of  them  allude  to  the  firmly-compressed  mouth,  the 
distended  nostrils,  and  flashing  eyes.  According  to  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Taplin,  rage,  with  the  Australians,  is  expressed 
by  the  lips  being  protruded,  the  eyes  being  widely  open ; 
and  in  the  case  of  the  women  by  their  dancing  about 
and  casting  dust  into  the  air.  Another  observer  speaks 
of  the  native  men,  when  enrage:!,  throwing  their  arms 
wildly  about. 

I  have  received  similar  accounts,  except  as  to  the 
clenching  of  the  fists,  in  regard  to  the  Malays  of  the 
Malacca  peninsula,  the  Abyssinians,  and  the  natives  of 
South  Africa.  So  it  is  with  the  Dakota  Indians  of 


13  Le  Bran,  in  his  well-known  c  Conference  sur  1'Expression '  ('  La 
Physionomie,  par  Lavater/  edit,  of  1820,  vol.  ix.  p.  268),  remarks  that 
anger  is  expressed  by  the  clenching  of  the  fists.  See,  to  the  same  effect, 
Huschke,  '  Mimices  et  Physiognomices,  Fragmentum  Physiologicum, 
1824,  p.  20.  Also  Sir  C.  Bell,  *  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  219. 


248  ANGER.  CHAP.  X. 

North  America ;  and,  according  to  Mr.  Matthews,  they 
then  hold  their  heads  erect,  frown,  and  often  stalk  away 
with  long  strides.  Mr.  Bridges  states  that  the  Fuegians, 
when  enraged,  frequently  stamp  on  the  ground,  walk 
distractedly  about,  sometimes  cry  and  grow  pale.  The 
Kev.  Mr,  Stack  watched  a  New  Zealand  man  and 
woman  quarrelling,  and  made  the  following  entry  in 
his  note-book :  "  Eyes  dilated,  body  swayed  violently 
"  backwards  and  forwards,  head  inclined  forwards,  fists 
"  clenched,  now  thrown  behind  the  body,  now  directed 
"  towards  each  other's  faces."  Mr.  Swinhoe  says  that 
my  description  agrees  with  what  he  has  seen  of  the 
Chinese,  excepting  that  an  angry  man  generally  inclines 
his  body  towards  his  antagonist,  and  pointing  at  him, 
pours  forth  a  volley  of  abuse. 

Lastly,  with  respect  to  the  natives  of  India,  Mr.  J. 
Scott  has  sent  me  a  full  description  of  their  gestures 
and  expression  when  enraged.  Two  low-caste  Ben- 
galees disputed  about  a  loan.  At  first  they  were  calm, 
but  soon  grew  furious  and  poured  forth  the  grossest 
abuse  on  each  other's  relations  and  progenitors  for 
many  generations  past.  Their  gestures  were  very 
different  from  those  of  Europeans;  for  though  their 
chests  were  expanded  and  shoulders  squared,  their  arms 
remained  rigidly  suspended,  with  the  elbows  turned 
inwards  and  the  hands  alternately  clenched  and  opened. 
Their  shoulders  were  often  raised  high,  and  then  again 
lowered.  They  looked  fiercely  at  each  other  from  under 
their  lowered  and  strongly  wrinkled  brows,  and  their 
protruded  lips  were  firmly  closed.  They  approached 
each  other,  with  heads  and  necks  stretched  forwards, 
and  pushed,  scratched,  and  grasped  at  eacli  other.  This 
protrusion  of  the  head  and  body  seems  a  common  ges- 
ture with  the  enraged;  and  I  have  noticed  it  with 
degraded  English  women  whilst  quarrelling  violently  in 


CHAP.  X.  SNEERING   AND    DEFIANCE.  249 

the  streets.     In  such  cases  it  may  be  presumed  that 
neither  party  expects  to  receive  a  blow  from  the  other. 

A  Bengalee  employed  in  the  Botanic  Gardens  was 
accused,  in  the  presence  of  Mr.  Scott,  by  the  native 
overseer  of  having  stolen  a  valuable  plant.  He  listened 
silently  and  scornfully  to  the  accusation ;  his  attitude 
erect,  chest  expanded,  mouth  closed,  lips  protruding, 
eyes  firmly  set  and  penetrating.  He  then  defiantly 
maintained  his  innocence,  with  upraised  and  clenched 
hands,  his  head  being  now  pushed  forwards,  with  the 
eyes  widely  open  and  eyebrows  raised.  Mr.  Scott  also 
watched  two  Mechis,  in  Sikhim,  quarrelling  about  their 
share  of  payment.  They  soon  got  into  a  furious  pas- 
sion, and  then  their  bodies  became  less  erect,  with  their 
heads  pushed  forwards;  they  made  grimaces  at  each 
other ;  their  shoulders  were  raised ;  their  arms  rigidly 
bent  inwards  at  the  elbows,  and  their  hands  spasmo- 
dically closed,  but  not  properly  clenched.  They  con- 
tinually approached  and  retreated  from  each  other,  and 
often  raised  their  arms  as  if  to  strike,  but  their  hands 
were  open,  and  no  blow  was  given.  Mr.  Scott  made 
similar  observations  on  the  Lepchas  whom  he  often  saw 
quarrelling,  and  he  noticed  that  they  kept  their  arms 
rigid  and  almost  parallel  to  their  bodies,  with  the  hands 
pushed  somewhat  backwards  and  partially  closed,  but 
not  clenched. 

Sneering,  Defiance:  Uncovering  the  canine  tooth  on 
one  side. — The  expression  which  I  wish  here  to  consider 
differs  but  little  from  that  already  described,  when  the 
lips  are  retracted  and  the  grinning  teeth  exposed.  The 
difference  consists  solely  in  the  upper  lip  being  retracted 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  canine  tooth  on  one  side  of 
the  face  alone  is  shown ;  the  face  itself  being  generally 
a  little  upturned  and  half  averted  from  the  person 


250  SNEERING  AND   DEFIANCE,  CHAP.  X. 

causing  offeuce.  The  other  signs  of  rage  are  not  neces- 
sarily present.  This  expression  may  occasionally  be 
observed  in  a  person  who  sneers  at  or  defies  another, 
though  there  may  be  no  real  anger ;  as  when  any  one 
is  playfully  accused  of  some  fault,  and  answers,  "I 
"  scorn  the  imputation."  The  expression  is  not  a 
common  one,  but  I  have  seen  it  exhibited  with  perfect 
distinctness  by  a  lady  who  was  being  quizzed  by  another 
person.  It  was  described  by  Parsons  as  long  ago  as 
1746,  with  an  engraving,  showing  the  uncovered  canine 
on  one  side.14  Mr.  Eejlander,  without  my  having  made 
any  allusion  to  the  subject,  asked  me  whether  I  had 
ever  noticed  this  expression,  as  he  had  been  much  struck 
by  it.  He  has  photographed  for  me  (Plate  IV.  fig.  1) 
a  lady,  who  sometimes  unintentionally  displays  the 
canine  on  one  side,  and  who  can  do  so  voluntarily  with 
unusual  distinctness. 

The  expression  of  a  half-playful  sneer  graduates  into 
one  of  great  ferocity  when,  together  with  a  heavily 
frowning  brow  and  fierce  eye,  the  canine  tooth  is  exposed. 
A  Bengalee  boy  was  accused  before  Mr.  Scott  of  some 
misdeed.  The  delinquent  did  not  dare  to  give  vent  to 
his  wrath  in  words,  but  it  was  plainly  shown  on  his 
countenance,  sometimes  by  a  defiant  frown,  and  some- 
times "  by  a  thoroughly  canine  snarl."  When  this  was 
exhibited,  "the  corner  of  the  lip  over  the  eye-tooth, 
"  which  happened  in  this  case  to  be  large  and  pro- 
"  jecting,  was  raised  on  the  side  of  his  accuser,  a  strong 
"  frown  being  still  retained  on  the  brow."  Sir  C.  Bell 
states15  that  the  actor  Cooke  could  express  the  most 
determined  hate  "when  with  the  oblique  cast  of  his 


14  Transact.  Philosoph.  Soc.,  Appendix,  1746,  p.  G5. 

15  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  136.     Sir  C.  Bell  calls  (p.  131)  the 
irm.;clcs  which  uncover  the  canines  the  snarling  muscles. 


P/uleara 


CHAP.  X.  SNEERING  AND  DEFIANCE.  251 

"  eyes  he  drew  up  the  outer  part  of  the  upper  lip,  and 
"  discovered  a  sharp  angular  tooth." 

The  uncovering  of  the  canine  tooth  is  the  result  of  a 
double  movement.  The  angle  or  corner  of  the  mouth 
is  drawn  a  little  backwards,  and  at  the  same  time  a 
muscle  which  runs  parallel  to  and  near  the  nose  draws 
up  the  outer  part  of  the  upper  lip,  and  exposes  the 
canine  on  this  side  of  the  face.  The  contraction  of 
this  muscle  makes  a  distinct  furrow  on  the  cheek,  and 
produces  strong  wrinkles  under  the  eye,  especially  at 
its  inner  corner.  The  action  is  the  same  as  that  of 
a  snarling  dog;  and  a  dog  when  pretending  to  fight 
often  draws  up  the  lip  on  one  side  alone,  namely  that 
facing  his  antagonist.  Our  word  sneer  is  in  fact  the 
same  as  snarl,  which  was  originally  snar,  the  I  "  being 
merely  an  element  implying  continuance  of  action." 16 

I  suspect  that  we  see  a  trace  of  this  same  expression 
in  what  is  called  a  derisive  or  sardonic  smile.  The  lips 
are  then  kept  joined  or  almost  joined,  but  one  corner 
of  the  mouth  is  retracted  on  the  side  towards  the  de- 
rided person ;  and  this  drawing  back  of  the  corner  is 
part  of  a  true  sneer.  Although  some  persons  smile 
more  on  one  side  of  their  face  than  on  the  other,  it  is 
not  easy  to  understand  why  in  cases  of  derision  the 
smile,  if  a  real  one,  should  so  commonly  be  confined  to 
one  side.  I  have  also  on  these  occasions  noticed  a 
slight  twitching  of  the  muscle  which  draws  up  the 
outer  part  of  the  upper  lip ;  and  this  movement,  if  fully 
carried  out,  would  have  uncovered  the  canine,  and 
would  have  produced  a  true  sneer. 

Mr.  Bulmer,  an  Australian  missionary  in  a  remote 
part  of  Gipps'  Land,  says,  in  answer  to  my  query  about 


18  Hensleigh  Wedgwood,  '  Dictionary  of  English  Etymology,"  18C5, 
vol.  iii.  pp.  240,  243. 


252  SNEERING   AND  DEFIANCE.  CHAP.  X. 

the  uncovering  of  the  canine  on  one  side,  "I  find  that 
"  the  natives  in  snarling  at  each  other  speak  with  the 
"  teeth  closed,  the  upper  lip  drawn  to  one  side,  and  a 
"  general  angry  expression  of  face ;  but  they  look  direct 
"  at  the  person  addressed."  Three  other  observers  in 
Australia,  one  in  Abyssinia,  and  one  in  China,  answer 
my  query  on  this  head  in  the  affirmative ;  but  as  the 
expression  is  rare,  and  as  they  enter  into  no  details, 
I  am  afraid  of  implicitly  trusting  them.  It  is,  how- 
ever, by  no  means  improbable  that  this  animal-like 
expression  may  be  more  common  with  savages  than 
with  civilized  races.  Mr.  Geach  is  an  observer  who 
may  be  fully  trusted,  and  he  has  observed  it  on  one 
occasion  in  a  Malay  in  the  interior  of  Malacca.  The 
Ilev.  S.  0.  Glenie  answers,  "We  have  observed  this 
"  expression  with  the  natives  of  Ceylon,  but  not  often." 
Lastly,  in  North  America,  Dr.  Bothrock  has  seen  it 
with  some  wild  Indians,,  and  often  in  a  tribe  adjoining 
the  Atnahs. 

Although  the  upper  lip  is  certainly  sometimes  raised 
on  one  side  alone  in  sneering  at  or  defying  any  one,  I 
do  not  know  that  this  is  always  the  case,  for  the  face 
is  commonly  half  averted,  and  the  expression  is  often 
momentary.  The  movement  being  confined  to  one  side 
may  not  be  an  essential  part  of  the  expression,  but  may 
depend  on  the  proper  muscles  being  incapable  of  move- 
ment excepting  on  one  side.  I  asked  four  persons  to 
endeavour  to  act  voluntarily  in  this  manner  ;  two  could 
expose  the  canine  only  on  the  left  side,  one  only  on  the 
right  side,  and  the  fourth  on  neither  side.  Neverthe- 
less it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  these  same  persons, 
if  defying  any  one  in  earnest,  would  not  unconsciously 
have  uncovered  their  canine  tooth  on  the  side,  which- 
ever it  might  be,  towards  the  offender.  For  we  have 
seen  that  some  persons  cannot  voluntarily  make  their 


CHAP.  X.  SNEEK1NQ  AND  DEFIANCE.  253 

eyebrows  oblique,  yet  instantly  act  in  tbis  manner  wben 
affected  by  any  real,  although  most  trifling,  cause  of 
distress.  The  power  of  voluntarily  uncovering  the 
canine  on  one  side  of  the  face  being  thus  often  wholly 
lost,  indicates  that  it  is  a  rarely  used  and  almost 
abortive  action.  It  is  indeed  a  surprising  fact  that  man 
should  possess  the  power,  or  should  exhibit  any  ten- 
dency to  its  use;  for  Mr.  Sutton  has  never  noticed 
a  snarling  action  in  our  nearest  allies,  namely,  the 
monkeys  in  the  Zoological  G-ardens,  and  he  is  positive 
that  the  baboons,  though  furnished  with  great  canines, 
never  act  thus,  but  uncover  all  their  teeth  when  feeling 
savage  and  ready  for  an  attack.  Whether  the  adult 
anthropomorphous  apes,  in  the  males  of  whom  the 
canines  are  much  larger  than  in  the  females,  uncover 
them  when  prepared  to  fight,  is  not  known. 

The  expression  here  considered,  whether  that  of  a 
playful  sneer  or  ferocious  snarl,  is  one  of  the  most 
curious  which  occurs  in  man.  It  reveals  his  animal 
descent ;  for  no  one,  even  if  rolling  on  the  ground  in 
a  deadly  grapple  with  an  enemy,  and  attempting  to 
bite  him,  would  try  to  use  his  canine  teeth  more  than 
his  other  teeth.  We  may  readily  believe  from  our 
affinity  to  the  anthropomorphous  apes  that  our  male 
semi-human  progenitors  possessed  great  canine  teeth, 
and  men  are  now  occasionally  born  having  them  of 
unusually  large  size,  with  interspaces  in  the  opposite 
jaw  for  their  reception.17  We  may  further  suspect,  not- 
withstanding that  we  have  no  support  from  analogy, 
that  our  semi -human  progenitors  uncovered  their  canine 
teeth  when  prepared  for  battle,  as  we  still  do  when 
feeling  ferocious,  or  when  merely  sneering  at  or  defy- 
ing some  one,  without  any  intention  of  making  a  real 
attack  with  our  teeth. 

17  «  The  Descent  of  Man,'  1871,  vol.  i.  p.  126. 


254  CONTEMPT.  CHAP.  XI. 


CHAPTEE   XL 

DISDAIN  —  CONTEMPT  —  DISGUST  —  GUILT  —  PRIDE,  ETC. — 
HELPLESSNESS  —  PATIENCE  —  AFFIRMATION  AND  NEGATION. 

Contempt,  scorn  and  disdain,  variously  expressed  —  Derisive  smile 
—  Gestures  expressive  of  contempt  —  Disgust  —  Guilt,  deceit, 
pride,  &c. — Helplessness  or  impotence — Patience — Obstinacy — 
Shrugging  the  shoulders  common  to  most  of  the  races  of  man — 
Signs  of  affirmation  and  negation. 

SCORN  and  disdain  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from 
contempt,  excepting  that  they  imply  a  rather  more  angry 
frame  of  mind.  Nor  can  they  be  clearly  distinguished 
from  the  feelings  discussed  in  the  last  chapter  under 
the  terms  of  sneering  and  defiance.  Disgust  is  a  sensa- 
tion rather  more  distinct  in  its  nature,  and  refers  to 
something  revolting,  primarily  in  relation  to  the  sense 
of  taste,  as  actually  perceived  or  vividly  imagined; 
and  secondarily  to  anything  which  causes  a  similar 
feeling,  through  the  sense  of  smell,  touch,  and  even  of 
eyesight.  Nevertheless,  extreme  contempt,  or  as  it  is 
often  called  loathing  contempt,  hardly  differs  from  dis- 
gust. These  several  conditions  of  the  mind  are,  there- 
fore, nearly  related ;  and  each  of  them  may  be  exhibited 
in  many  different  ways.  Some  writers  have  insisted 
chiefly  on  one  mode  of  expression,  and  others  on  a 
different  mode.  From  this  circumstance  M.  Lemoine 
has  argued l  that  their  descriptions  are  not  trustworthy. 
But  we  shall  immediately  see  that  it  is  natural  that  the 
feelings  which  we  have  here  to  consider  should  be  ex- 


De  la  Phy&ionomie  et  la  Parole,'  18G5,  p.  89. 


Tai  V 


CHAP.  XI.  CONTEMPT.  255 

pressed  in  many  different  ways,  inasmuch  as  various 
habitual  actions  serve  equally  well,  through  the  prin- 
ciple of  association,  for  their  expression. 

Scorn  and  disdain,  as  well  as  sneering  and  defiance, 
may  be  displayed  by  a  slight  uncovering  of  the  canine 
tooth  on  one  side  of  the  face;  and  this  movement 
appears  to  graduate  into  one  closely  like  a  smile.  Or 
the  smile  or  laugh  may  be  real,  although  one  of  derision  ; 
and  this  implies  that  the  offender  is  so  insignificant 
that  he  excites  only  amusement;  but  the  amusement 
is  generally  a  pretence.  Gaika  in  his  answers  to  my 
queries  remarks,  that  contempt  is  commonly  shown  by 
his  countrymen,  the  Kafirs,  by  smiling ;  and  the  Rajah 
Brooke  makes  the  same  observation  with  respect  to  the 
Dyaks  of  Borneo,  As  laughter  is  primarily  the  expres- 
sion of  simple  joy,  very  young  children  do  not,  I  believe, 
ever  laugh  in  derision. 

The  partial  closure  of  the  eyelids,  as  Duchenne2 
insists,  or  the  turning  away  of  the  eyes  or  of  the  whole 
body,  are  likewise  highly  expressive  of  disdain.  These 
actions  seem  to  declare  that  the  despised  person  is  not 
worth  looking  at,  or  is  disagreeable  to  behold.  The  ac- 
companying photograph  (Plate  V.  fig.  1)  by  Mr.  Rejlan- 
der,  shows  this  form  of  disdain.  It  represents  a  young 
lady,  who  is  supposed  to  be  tearing  up  the  photograph 
of  a  despised  lover. 

The  most  common  method  of  expressing  contempt  is 
by  movements  about  the  nose,  or  round  the  mouth ;  but 
the  latter  movements,  when  strongly  pronounced,  indi- 
cate disgust.  The  nose  may  be  slightly  turned  up, 
which  apparently  follows  from  the  turning  up  of  the 
upper  lip ;  or  the  movement  may  be  abbreviated  into 

2  '  Physionomie  Humaine,'  Album,  Legcnde  viii.  p.  35.  Gratioltt 
also  speaks  (Do  la  Pliys.  186,"),  p.  52)  of  the  turning  away  of  the  eyes 
and  body. 


256  CONTEMPT.  CHAP.  XI. 

the  mere  wrinkling  of  the  nose.  The  nose  is  ofteu 
slightly  contracted,  so  as  partly  to  close  the  passage ; 3 
and  this  is  commonly  accompanied  by  a  slight  snort  or 
expiration.  All  these  actions  are  the  same  with  those 
which  we  employ  when  we  perceive  an  offensive  odour, 
and  wish  to  exclude  or  expel  it.  In  extreme  cases,  as 
Dr.  Piderit  remarks,4  we  protrude  and  raise  both  lips, 
or  the  upper  lip  alone,  so  as  to  close  the  nostrils  as  by 
a  valve,  the  nose  being  thus  turned  up.  We  seem 
thus  to  say  to  the  despised  person  that  he  smells  offen- 
sively,6 in  nearly  the  same  manner  as  we  express  to 
him  by  half-closing  our  eyelids,  or  turning  away  our 
faces,  that  he  is  not  worth  looking  at.  It  must  not, 
however,  be  supposed  that  such  ideas  actually  pass 
through  the  mind  when  we  exhibit  our  contempt ;  but 
as  whenever  we  have  perceived  a  disagreeable  odour 
or  seen  a  disagreeable  sight,  actions  of  this  kind  have 
been  performed,  they  have  become  habitual  or  fixed, 
and  are  now  employed  under  any  analogous  state  of 
mind. 

Various  odd   little   gestures  likewise  indicate   con- 


3  Dr.  "W.  Ogle,  in  an  interesting  paper  on  the  Sense  of  Smell 
('  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions,'  vol.  liii.  p.  268),  shows  that  when  we 
wish  to  smell  carefully,  instead  of  taking  one  deep  nasal  inspiration, 
we  draw  in  the  air  by  a  succession  of  rapid  short  sniffs.     If  "  the 
"  nostrils  be  watched  during  this  process,  it  will  be  seen  that,  so  far 
"  from  dilating,  they  actually  contract  at  each  sniff.     The  contraction 
"  does  not  include  the  whole  anterior  opening,  but  only  the  posterior 
*'  portion."    He  then  explains  the  cause  of  this  movement.    When,  on 
the  other  hand,  we  wish  to  exclude  any  odour,  the  contraction,  I  pre- 
sume, affects  only  the  anterior  part  of  the  nostrils. 

4  'Mimik  und  Physiognomik,'  ss.  84,  93.     Gratiolet  (ibid.  p.  155) 
takes  nearly  the  fame  view  with  Dr.  Piderit  respecting  the  expression 
of  contempt  and  disgust. 

Scorn  implies  a  strong  form  of  contempt ;  and  one  of  the  roots  oi 
the  word  '  scorn '  means,  according  to  Mr.  Wedgwood  (Diet,  of  English 
Etymology,  vol.  iii.  p.  125),  ordure  or  dirt.  A  person  who  is  scorned 
is  treated  like  dirt. 


CHAP.  XI.  DISGUST.  257 

tempt;  for  instance,  snapping  ones  fingers.  This,  as 
Mr.  Tylor  remarks,6  "is  not  very  intelligible  as  we 
"  generally  see  it ;  but  when  we  notice  that  the  same 
"  sign  made  quite  gently,  as  if  rolling  some  tiny  object 
"  away  between  the  finger  and  thumb,  or  the  sign  of 
"  flipping  it  away  with  the  thumb-nail  and  forefinger, 
"  are  usual  and  well-understood  deaf-and-dumb  gestures, 
"  denoting  anything  tiny,  insignificant,  contemptible,  it 
"  seems  as  though  we  had  exaggerated  and  conven- 
"  tionalized  a  perfectly  natural  action,  so  as  to  lose 
u  sight  of  its  original  meaning.  There  is  a  curious 
"  mention  of  this  gesture  by  Strabo."  Mr.  Washington 
Matthews  informs  me  that,  with  the  Dakota  Indians  of 
North  America,  contempt  is  shown  not  only  by  move- 
ments of  the  face,  such  as  those  above  described,  but 
"  conventionally,  by  the  hand  being  closed  and  held 
"  near  the  breast,  then,  as  the  forearm  is  suddenly 
"  extended,  the  hand  is  opened  and  the  fingers  sepa- 
"  rated  from  each  other.  If  the  person  at  whose  ex- 
"  pense  the  sign  is  made  is  present,  the  hand  is  moved 
"  towards  him,  and  the  head  sometimes  averted  from 
"  him."  This  sudden  extension  and  opening  of  the 
hand  perhaps  indicates  the  dropping  or  throwing  away 
a  valueless  object. 

The  term  *  disgust,'  in  its  simplest  sense,  means  some- 
thing offensive  to  the  taste.  It  is  curious  how  readily 
this  feeling  is  excited  by  anything  unusual  in  the 
appearance,  odour,  or  nature  of  our  food.  In  Tierra  del 
Fuego  a  native  touched  with  his  finger  some  cold  pre- 
served meat  which  I  was  eating  at  our  bivouac,  and 
plainly  showed  utter  disgust  at  its  softness;  whilst  ] 
felt  utter  disgust  at  my  food  being  touched  by  a  naked 
savage,  though  his  hands  did  not  appear  dirty.  A 
smear  of  soup  on  a  man's  beard  looks  disgusting,  thong' i 

«  *  Early  History  of  Mankind,'  2nd  edit.  1870,  p.  45. 
12 


258  DISGUST.  CHAP.  XL 

there  is  of  course  nothing  disgusting  in  the  soup  itself. 
I  presume  that  this  follows  from  the  strong  association 
in  our  minds  between  the  sight  of  food,  however  circum- 
stanced, and  the  idea  of  eating  it. 

As  the  sensation  of  disgust  primarily  arises  in  con- 
nection with  the  act  of  eating  or  tasting,  it  is  natural 
that  its  expression  should  consist  chiefly  in  movements 
round  the  mouth.  But  as  disgust  also  causes  annoyance, 
it  is  generally  accompanied  by  a  frown,  and  often  by 
gestures  as  if  to  push  away  or  to  guard  oneself  against 
the  offensive  object.  In  the  two  photographs  (figs.  2 
and  3,  on  Plate  V.)  Mr.  Eejlander  has  simulated  this  ex- 
pression with  some  success.  With  respect  to  the  face, 
moderate  disgust  is  exhibited  in  various  ways ;  by  the 
mouth  being  widely  opened,  as  if  to  let  an  offensive  morsel 
drop  out ;  by  spitting ;  by  blowing  out  of  the  protruded 
lips;  or  by  a  sound  as  of  clearing  the  throat.  Such 
guttural  sounds  are  written  ach  or  ugh  ;  and  their  utter- 
ance is  sometimes  accompanied  by  a  shudder,  the  arms 
being  pressed  close  to  the  sides  and  the  shoulders  raised 
in  the  same  manner  as  when  horror  is  experienced.7 
Extreme  disgust  is  expressed  by  movements  round  the 
mouth  identical  with  those  preparatory  to  the  act  of 
vomiting.  The  mouth  is  opened  widely,  with  the  upper 
lip  strongly  retracted,  which  wrinkles  the  sides  of  the 
nose,  and  with  the  lower  lip  protruded  and  everted  as 
much  as  possible.  This  latter  movement  requires  the 
contraction  of  the  muscles  which  draw  downwards  the 
corners  of  the  mouth.8 

It  is  remarkable  how  readily  and  instantly  retching 

7  See,  to  tins  effect,  Mr.  Hensleigh  Wedgwood's   Introduction  to 
the  «  Dictionary  of  English  Etymology,'  2nd  edit.  1872,  p.  xxxvii. 

8  Duchenne  believes  that  in  the  eversion  of  the  lower  lip,  the  corners 
are  drawn  downwards  by  the  depressores  anguli  oris.    Henle  (Hand- 
buch  d.  Anat.  des  Menschen,  1858,  B.  i.  s.  151)  concludes  that  this  is 
effected  by  the  musculus  quadratus  mentL 


CHAP.  XI.  DISGUST.  259 

or  actual  vomiting  is  induced  in  some  persons  by  the 
mere  idea  of  having  partaken  of  any  unusual  food,  as 
of  an  animal  which  is  not  commonly  eaten ;  although 
there  is  nothing  in  such  food  to  cause  the  stomach  to 
reject  it.  When  vomiting  results,  as  a  reflex  action, 
from  some  real  cause — as  from  too  rich  food,  or  tainted 
meat,  or  from  an  emetic — it  does  not  ensue  immediately, 
but  generally  after  a  considerable  interval  of  time. 
Therefore,  to  account  for  retching  or  vomiting  being  so 
quickly  and  easily  excited  by  a  mere  idea,  the  suspicion 
arises  that  our  progenitors  must  formerly  have  had  the 
power  (like  that  possessed  by  ruminants  and  some 
other  animals)  of  voluntarily  rejecting  food  which  dis- 
agreed with  them,  or  which  they  thought  would  disagree 
with  them;  and  now,  though  this  power  has  been 
lost,  as  far  as  the  will  is  concerned,  it  is  called  into 
involuntary  action,  through  the  force  of  a  formerly  well- 
established  habit,  whenever  the  mind  revolts  at  the  idea 
of  having  partaken  of  any  kind  of  food,  or  at  anything 
disgusting.  This  suspicion  receives  support  from  the 
fact,  of  which  I  am  assured  by  Mr.  Button,  that  the 
monkeys  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  often  vomit  whilst 
in  perfect  health,  which  looks  as  if  the  act  were  volun- 
tary. We  can  see  that  as  man  is  able  to  communicate 
by  language  to  his  children  and  others,  the  knowledge 
of  the  kinds  of  food  to  be  avoided,  he  would  have 
little  occasion  to  use  the  faculty  of  voluntary  rejection ; 
so  that  this  power  would  tend  to  be  lost  through 
disuse. 

As  the  sense  of  smell  is  so  intimately  connected  v  .th 
that  of  taste,  it  is  not  surprising  that  an  excessively 
bad  odour  should  excite  retching  or  vomiting  in  some 
persons,  quite  as  readily  as  the  thought  of  revolting 
food  does  ;  and  that,  as  a  further  consequence,  a 
moderately  offensive  odour  should  cause  the  various 


260  DISGUST.  CHAP.  XI 

expressive  movements  of  disgust.  The  tendency  to 
retch  from  a  fetid  odour  is  immediately  strengthened 
in  a  curious  manner  by  some  degree  of  habit,  though 
soon  lost  by  longer  familiarity  with  the  cause  of  offence 
and  by  voluntary  restraint.  For  instance,  I  wished  to 
clean  the  skeleton  of  a  bird,  which  had  not  been  suffi- 
ciently macerated,  and  the  smell  made  my  servant  and 
myself  (we  not  having  had  much  experience  in  such 
work)  retch  so  violently,  that  we  were  compelled  to 
desist.  During  the  previous  days  I  had  examined  some 
other  skeletons,  which  smelt  slightly  ;  yet  the  odour  did 
not  in  the  least  affect  me,  but,  subsequently  for  several 
days,  whenever  I  handled  these  same  skeletons,  they 
made  me  retch. 

From  the  answers  received  from  my  correspondents  it 
appears  that  the  various  movements,  which  have  now 
been  described  as  expressing  contempt  and  disgust,  pre- 
vail throughout  a  large  part  of  the  world.  Dr.  Eothrock, 
for  instance,  answers  with  a  decided  affirmative  with 
respect  to  certain  wild  Indian  tribes  of  North  America. 
Crantz  says  that  when  a  Greenlander  denies  anything 
with  contempt  or  horror  he  turns  up  his  nose,  and  gives 
a  slight  sound  through  it.9  Mr.  Scott  has  sent  me 
a  graphic  description  of  the  face  of  a  young  Hindoo 
at  the  sight  of  castor- oil,  which  he  was  compelled  occa- 
sionally to  take.  Mr.  Scott  has  also  seen  the  same 
expression  on  the  faces  of  high-caste  natives  who  have 
approached  close  to  some  defiling  object.  Mr.  Bridges 
says  that  the  Fuegians  "  express  contempt  by  shooting 
"  Tit  the  lips  and  hissing  through  them,  and  by  turning 
"  up  the  nose."  The  tendency  either  to  snort  through 
the  nose,  or  to  make  a  noise  expressed  by  ugh  or  ach,  is 
noticed  by  several  of  my  correspondents. 

Spitting  seems  an  almost  universal  sign  of  contempt 
9  As  quoted  by  Tylor,  •  Primitive  Culture,'  1871,  vol.  i.  p.  169. 


CHAP.  XI.  DISGUST.  261 

or  disgust ;  and  spitting  obviously  represents  the  rejec- 
tion of  anything  offensive  from  the  mouth.  Shakspeare 
makes  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  say,  "  I  spit  at  him — call 
"  him  a  slanderous  coward  and  a  villain."  So,  again, 
Falstaff  says,  « Tell  tliee  what,  Hal,— if  I  tell  thee  a 
"  lie,  spit  in  my  face."  Leichhardt  remarks  that  the 
Australians  "  interrupted  their  speeches  by  spitting,  and 
"  uttering  a  noise  like  pooh  !  pooh !  apparently  express- 
"  ive  of  their  disgust."  And  Captain  Burton  speaks 
of  certain  negroes  "  spitting  with  disgust  upon  the 
"  ground."10  Captain  Speedy  informs  me  that  this  is 
likewise  the  case  with  the  Abyssinians.  Mr.  Geach 
says  that  with  the  Malays  of  Malacca  the  expression 
of  disgust  "answers  to  spitting  from  the  mouth;"  and 
with  the  Fuegians,  according  to  Mr.  Bridges  "  to  spit 
"  at  one  is  the  highest  mark  of  contempt." 

I  never  saw  disgust  more  plainly  expressed  than  on 
the  face  of  one  of  my  infants  at  the  age  of  five  months, 
when,  for  the  first  time,  some  cold  water,  and  again 
a  month  afterwards,  when  a  piece  of  ripe  cherry  was 
put  into  his  mouth.     This  was  shown  by  the  lips  and 
whole   mouth   assuming    a   shape    which   allowed  the 
contents  to  run  or  fall  quickly  out ;  the  tongue  being 
likewise  protruded.      These   movements  were   accom- 
panied by  a  little  shudder.    It  was  all  the  more  comical, 
as  I  doubt  whether  the  child  felt  real  disgust — the  eyes 
and  forehead  expressing  much  surprise  and  considera- 
tion.    The  protrusion  of  the  tongue  in  letting  a  nasty 
object  fall  out  of  the  mouth,  may  explain  how  it  is  that 
lolling  out  the  tongue  universally  serves  as  a  sign  of 
contempt  and  hatred.11 

10  Both  these  quotations  are  given  by  Mr.  H.  Wedgwood,  '  On  the 
Origin  of  Language/  1866,  p.  75. 

II  This  is  stated  to  be  the  case  by  Mr.  Tylor  (Early  Hist,  of  Mankind, 
2nd  edit.  1870,  p.  52) ;  and  he  adds,  "  it  is  not  clear  why  this  should 
be  so." 


262  GUILT.  CHAP.  XI 

We  have  now  seen  that  scorn,  disdain,  contempt,  and 
disgust  are  expressed  in  many  different  ways,  by  move- 
ments of  the  features,  and  by  various  gestures ;  and  that 
these  are  the  same  throughout  the  world.  They  all 
consist  of  actions  representing  the  rejection  or  exclu- 
sion of  some  real  object  which  we  dislike  or  abhor,  but 
which  does  not  excite  in  us  certain  other  strong  emo- 
tions, such  as  rage  or  terror  ;  and  through  the  force  of 
habit  and  association  similar  actions  are  performed, 
whenever  any  analogous  sensation  arises  in  our  minds. 

Jealousy,  Envy,  Avarice,  Revenge,  Suspicion,  Deceit, 
Slyness,  Guilt,  Vanity,  Conceit,  Ambition,  Pride,  Humility, 
&c. —  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  greater  number  of 
the  above  complex  states  of  mind  are  revealed  by  any 
fixed  expression,  sufficiently  distinct  to  be  described  or 
delineated.  When  Shakspeare  speaks  of  Envy  as  lean- 
faced,  or  Hack,  or  pale,  and  Jealousy  as  "  the  green-eyed 
monster;"  and  when  Spenser  describes  Suspicion  as  "foul, 
ill-favoured,  and  grim,"  they  must  have  felt  this  diffi- 
culty. Nevertheless,  the  above  feelings — at  least  many 
of  them — can  be  detected  by  the  eye ;  for  instance,  con- 
ceit ;  but  we  are  often  guided  in  a  much  greater  degree 
than  we  suppose  by  our  previous  knowledge  of  the  per- 
sons or  circumstances. 

My  correspondents  almost  unanimously  answer  in  the 
affirmative  to  my  query,  whether  the  expression  of  guilt 
and  deceit  can  be  recognised  amongst  the  various  races 
of  man ;  and  I  have  confidence  in  their  answers,  as  they 
generally  deny  that  jealousy  can  thus  be  recognised.  In 
the  cases  in  which  details  are  given,  the  eyes  are  almost 
always  referred  to.  The  guilty  man  is  said  to  avoid 
looking  at  his  accuser,  or  to  give  him  stolen  looks.  The 
eyes  are  said  "  to  be  turned  askant,"  or  "  to  waver  from 
"  side  to  side,"  or  "  the  eyelids  to  be  lowered  and  partly 


CHAP.  XL  PRIDE.  263 

"  closed."  This  latter  remark  is  made  by  Mr.  Hagenauer 
with  respect  to  the  Australians,  and  by  Gaika  with  re- 
spect to  the  Kafirs.  The  restless  movements  of  the  eyes 
apparently  follow,  as  will  be  explained  when  we  treat  of 
blushing,  from  the  guilty  man  not  enduring  to  meet  the 
gaze  of  his  accuser.  I  may  add,  that  I  have  observed 
a  guilty  expression,  without  a  shade  of  fear,  in  some  of 
my  own  children  at  a  very  early  age.  In  one  instance 
the  expression  was  unmistakably  clear  in  a  child  two 
years  and  seven  months  old,  and  led  to  the  detection 
of  his  little  crime.  It  was  shown,  as  I  record  in  my 
notes  made  at  the  time,  by  an  unnatural  brightness  in 
the  eyes,  and  by  an  odd,  affected  manner,  impossible  to 
describe. 

Slyness  is  also,  I  believe,  exhibited  chiefly  by  move- 
ments about  the  eyes ;  for  these  are  less  under  the 
control  of  the  will,  owing  to  the  force  of  long-continued 
habit,  than  are  the  movements  of  the  body.  Mr. 
Herbert  Spencer  remarks,12  "  When  there  is  a  desire  to 
"  see  something  on  one  side  of  the  visual  field  without 
"  being  supposed  to  see  it,  the  tendency  is  to  check  the 
"  conspicuous  movement  of  the  head,  and  to  make  the 
"  required  adjustment  entirely  with  the  eyes ;  which 
"  are,  therefore,  drawn  very  much  to  one  side.  Hence, 
"  when  the  eyes  are  turned  to  one  side,  while  the  face  is 
"  not  turned  to  the  same  side,  we  get  the  natural 
"  language  of  what  is  called  slyness." 

Of  all  the  above-named  complex  emotions,  Pride,  per- 
haps, is  the  most  plainly  expressed.  A  proud  man 
exhibits  his  sense  of  superiority  over  others  by  holding 
his  head  and  body  erect.  He  is  haughty  (haut),  or 
high,  and  makes  himself  appear  as  large  as  possible  ;  so 
that  metaphorically  he  is  said  to  be  swollen  or  puffed  up 


'  Principles  of  Psychology,'  2nd  edit.  1872,  p.  552. 


2(54  HELPLESSNESS :  CHAP.  XI 

with  pride.  A  peacock  or  a  turkey-cock  strutting  about 
with  puffed-up  feathers,  is  sometimes  said  to  be  an  em- 
blem of  pride.13  The  arrogant  man  looks  down  on 
others,  and  with  lowered  eyelids  hardly  condescends  to 
see  them ;  or  he  may  show  his  contempt  by  slight 
movements,  such  as  those  before  described,  about  the 
nostrils  or  lips,  Hence  the  muscle  which  everts  the 
lower  lip  has  been  called  the  musculus  superbus.  In 
some  photographs  of  patients  affected  by  a  monomania 
of  pride,  sent  me  by  Dr.  Crichton  Browne,  the  head 
and  body  were  held  erect,  and  the  mouth  firmly 
closed.  This  latter  action,  expressive  of  decision, 
follows,  I  presume,  from  the  proud  man  feeling  perfect 
self-confidence  in  himself.  The  whole  expression  of 
pride  stands  in  direct  antithesis  to  that  of  humility ;  so 
that  nothing  need  here  be  said  of  the  latter  state  of 
mind. 

Helplessness,  Impotence:  Shrugging  tlie  shoulders. — 
When  a  man  wishes  to  show  that  he  cannot  do  some- 
thing, or  prevent  something  being  done,  he  often 
raises  with  a  quick  movement  both  shoulders.  At 
the  same  time,  if  the  whole  gesture  is  completed, 
he  bends  his  elbows  closely  inwards,  raises  his  open 
hands,  turning  them  outwards,  with  the  fingers  separated. 
The  head  is  often  thrown  a  little  on  one  side ;  the 
eyebrows  are  elevated,  and  this  causes  wrinkles  across 
the  forehead.  The  mouth  is  generally  opened.  I  may 
mention,  in  order  to  show  how  unconsciously  the  fea- 
tures are  thus  acted  on,  that  though  I  had  often  inten- 
tionally shrugged  my  shoulders  to  observe  how  my 


13  Gratiolet  (De  la  Phys.  p.  351)  makes  this  remark,  and  has  some 
good  observations  on  the  expression  of  pride.  See  Sir  C.  Bell  ('  Anatomy 
of  Expression,'  p.  Ill)  on  the  action  of  the  musculus  superbus 


CHAP.  XI.  SHRLGGING   THE  SHOULDERS.  265 

arms  were  placed,  I  was  not  at  all  aware  that  my  eye- 
brows were  raised  and  mouth  opened,  until  I  looked  at 
myself  in  a  glass ;  and  since  then  I  have  noticed  the 
same  movements  in  the  faces  of  others.  In  the  accom- 
panying Plate  VI.,  figs.  3  and  4,  Mr.  Eejlander  has  suc- 
cessfully acted  the  gesture  of  shrugging  the  shoulders. 

Englishmen  are  much  less  demonstrative  than  the 
men  of  most  other  European  nations,  and  they  shrug 
their  shoulders  far  less  frequently  and  energetically  than 
Frenchmen  or  Italians  do.  The  gesture  varies  in  all 
degrees  from  the  complex  movement,  just  described,  to 
only  a  momentary  and  scarcely  perceptible  raising  of 
both  shoulders ;  or,  as  I  have  noticed  in  a  lady  sitting  in 
an  arm-chair,  to  the  mere  turning  slightly  outwards  of 
the  open  hands  with  separated  fingers.  I  have  never 
seen  very  young  English  children  shrug  their  shoulders, 
but  the  following  case  was  observed  with  care  by  a 
medical  professor  and  excellent  observer,  and  has  been 
communicated  to  me  by  him.  The  father  of  this  gen- 
tleman was  a  Parisian,  and  his  mother  a  Scotch  lady. 
His  wife  is  of  British  extraction  on  both  sides,  and  my 
informant  does  not  believe  that  she  ever  shrugged  her 
shoulders  in  her  life.  His  children  have  been  reared  in 
England,  and  the  nursemaid  is  a  thorough  English- 
woman, who  has  never  been  seen  to  shrug  her  shoulders. 
Now,  his  eldest  daughter  was  observed  to  shrug  her 
shoulders  at  the  age  of  between  sixteen  and  eighteen 
months ;  her  mother  exclaiming  at  the  time,  "  Look  at 
"  the  little  French  girl  shrugging  her  shoulders ! "  At 
first  she  often  acted  thus,  sometimes  throwing  her  head 
a  little  backwards  and  on  one  side,  but  she  did  not,  as 
far  as  was  observed,  move  her  elbows  and  hands  in  the 
usual  manner.  The  habit  gradually  wore  away,  and 
now,  when  she  is  a  little  over  four  years  old,  she  is  never 
seen  to  act  thus.  The  father  is  told  that  he  sometimes 


2G6  HELPLESSNESS :  CHAP.  XI. 

shrugs  liis  shoulders,  especially  when  arguing  with  any 
one ;  but  it  is  extremely  improbable  that  his  daughter 
should  have  imitated  him  at  so  early  an  age ;  for,  as  he 
remarks,  she  could  not  possibly  have  often  seen  this 
gesture  in  him.  Moreover,  if  the  habit  had  been  ac- 
quired through  imitation,  it  is  not  probable  that  it 
would  so  soon  have  been  spontaneously  discontinued  by 
this  child,  and,  as  we  shall  immediately  see,  by  a  second 
child,  though  the  father  still  lived  with  his  family. 
This  little  girl,  it  may  be  added,  resembles  her  Parisian 
grandfather  in  countenance  to  an  almost  absurd  degree. 
She  also  presents  another  and  very  curious  resemblance 
to  him,  namely,  by  practising  a  singular  trick.  When 
she  impatiently  wants  something,  she  holds  out  her 
little  hand,  and  rapidly  nibs  the  thumb  against  the 
index  and  middle  finger:  now  this  same  trick  was  fre- 
quently performed  under  the  same  circumstances  by  her 
grandfather. 

This  gentleman's  second  daughter  also  shrugged 
her  shoulders  before  the  age  of  eighteen  months,  and 
afterwards  discontinued  the  habit.  It  is  of  course  pos- 
sible that  she  may  have  imitated  her  elder  sister ;  but 
she  continued  it  after  her  sister  had  lost  the  habit.  She 
at  first  resembled  her  Parisian  grandfather  in  a  less 
degree  than  did  her  sister  at  the  same  age,  but  now  in  a 
greater  degree.  She  likewise  practises  to  the  present 
time  the  peculiar  habit  of  rubbing  together,  when  im- 
patient, her  thumb  and  two  of  her  fore-fingers. 

In  this  latter  case  we  have  a  good  instance,  like  those 
given  in  a  former  chapter,  of  the  inheritance  of  a  trick 
or  gesture ;  for  no  one,  I  presume,  will  attribute  to  mere 
coincidence  so  peculiar  a  habit  as  this,  which  was  com- 
mon to  the  grandfather  and  his  two  grandchildren  who 
had  never  seen  him. 

Considering  all  the  circumstances  with  reference  to 


CHAP.  XL  SHRUGGING   THE   SHOULDERS.  267 

these  children  shrugging  their  shoulders,  it  can  hardly 
be  doubted  that  they  have  inherited  the  habit  from 
their  French  progenitors,  although  they  have  only  one 
quarter  French  blood  in  their  veins,  and  although  their 
grandfather  did  not  often  shrug  his  shoulders.  There 
is  nothing  very  unusual,  though  the  fact  is  interesting, 
in  these  children  having  gained  by  inheritance  a  habit 
during  early  youth,  and  then  discontinuing  it ;  for  it  is 
of  frequent  occurrence  with  many  kinds  of  animals  that 
certain  characters  are  retained  for  a  period  by  the 
young,  and  are  then  lost. 

As  it  appeared  to  me  at  one  time  improbable  in  a 
high  degree  that  so  complex  a  gesture  as  shrugging 
the  shoulders,  together  with  the  accompanying  move- 
ments, should  be  innate,  I  was  anxious  to  ascertain 
whether  the  blind  and  deaf  Laura  Bridgman,  who  could 
not  have  learnt  the  habit  by  imitation,  practised  it. 
And  I  have  heard,  through  Dr.  Innes,  from  a  lady  who 
has  lately  had  charge  of  her,  that  she  does  shrug  her 
shoulders,  turn  in  her  elbows,  and  raise  her  eyebrows  in 
the  same  manner  as  other  people,  and  under  the  same 
circumstances.  I  was  also  anxious  to  learn  whether  this 
gesture  was  practised  by  the  various  races  of  man,  espe- 
cially by  those  who  never  have  had  much  intercourse 
with  Europeans.  We  shall  see  that  they  act  in  this 
manner ;  but  it  appears  that  the  gesture  is  sometimes 
confined  to  merely  raising  or  shrugging  the  shoulders, 
without  the  other  movements. 

Mr.  Scott  has  frequently  seen  this  gesture  in  the 
Bengalees  and  Dhangars  (the  latter  constituting  a  dis- 
tinct race)  who  are  employed  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at 
Calcutta ;  when,  for  instance,  they  have  declared  that 
they  could  not  do  some  work,  such  as  lifting  a  heavy 
weight.  He  ordered  a  Bengalee  to  climb  a  lofty  tree ; 
but  the  man,  with  a  shrug  of  his  shoulders  and  a  lateral 


268  HELPLESSNESS  :  CHAP.  XL 

shake  of  bis  head,  said  he  could  not.  Mr.  Scott  know- 
ing that  the  man  was  lazy,  thought  he  could,  and  in- 
sisted on  his  trying.  His  face  now  became  pale,  his 
arms  dropped  to  his  sides,  his  mouth  and  eyes  were 
widely  opened,  and  again  surveying  the  tree,  he  looked 
askant  at  Mr.  Scott,  shrugged  his  shoulders,  inverted 
his  elbows,  extended  his  open  hands,  and  with  a  few 
quick  lateral  shakes  of  the  head  declared  his  inability. 
Mr.  H.  Erskine  has  likewise  seen  the  natives  of  India 
shrugging  their  shoulders  ;  but  he  has  never  seen  the 
elbows  turned  so  much  inwards  as  with  us ;  and  whilst 
shrugging  their  shoulders  they  sometimes  lay  their  un- 
crossed hands  on  their  breasts. 

With  the  wild  Malays  of  the  interior  of  Malacca,  and 
with  the  Bugis(true  Malays,  though  speak  ing  a  different 
language),  Mr.  Geach  has  often  seen  this  gesture.  I 
presume  that  it  is  complete,  as,  in  answer  to  my  query 
descriptive  of  the  movements  of  the  shoulders,  arms, 
hands,  and  face,  Mr.  Geach  remarks,  "  it  is  performed 
"  in  a  beautiful  style."  I  have  lost  an  extract  from  a 
scientific  voyage,  in  which  shrugging  the  shoulders  by 
some  natives  (Micronesians)  of  the  Caroline  Archipelago 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  was  well  described.  Capt.  Speedy 
informs  me  that  the  Abyssinians  shrug  their  shoulders, 
but  enters  into  no  details.  Mrs.  Asa  Gray  saw  an  Arab 
dragoman  in  Alexandria  acting  exactly  as  described  in 
my  query,  when  an  old  gentleman,  on  whom  he 
attended,  would  not  go  in  the  proper  direction  which 
had  been  pointed  out  to  him. 

Mr.  Washington  Matthews  says,  in  reference  to  the 
wild  Indian  tribes  of  the  western  parts  of  the  United 
States,  "I  have  on  a  few  occasions  detected  men  using 
"  a  slight  apologetic  shrug,  but  the  rest  of  the  clemon- 
"  stration  which  you  describe  I  have  not  witnessed." 
Fritz  Miiller  informs  me  that  he  has  seen  the  negroes 


CHAP.  XI.  SHRUGGING  THE   SHOULDERS.  269 

in  Brazil  shrugging  their  shoulders  ;  but  it  is  of  course 
possible  that  they  may  have  learnt  to  do  so  by  imitating 
the  Portuguese.  Mrs.  Barber  has  never  seen  this  ges- 
ture with  the  Kafirs  of  South  Africa ;  and  Gaika,  judging 
from  his  answer,  did  not  even  understand  what  was 
meant  by  my  description.  Mr.  Swinhoe  is  also  doubtful 
about  the  Chinese ;  but  he  has  seen  them,  under  the 
circumstances  which  would  make  us  shrug  our  shoulders, 
press  their  right  elbow  against  their  side,  raise  their 
eyebrows,  lift  up  their  hand  with  the  palm  directed 
towards  the  person  addressed,  and  shake  it  from  right 
to  left.  Lastly,  with  respect  to  the  Australians,  four 
of  my  informants  answer  by  a  simple  negative,  and 
one  by  a  simple  affirmative.  Mr.  Bunnett,  who  has 
had  excellent  opportunities  for  observation  on  the 
borders  of  the  Colony  of  Victoria,  also  answers  by  a 
"  yes,"  adding  that  the  gesture  is  performed  "  in  a  more 
"subdued  and  less  demonstrative  manner  than  is  the 
"  case  with  civilized  nations."  This  circumstance  may 
account  for  its  not  having  been  noticed  by  four  of  my 
informants. 

These  statements,  relating  to  Europeans,  Hindoos,  the 
hill-tribes  of  India,  Malays,  Micronesians,  Abyssinians, 
Arabs,  Negroes,  Indians  of  North  America,  and  appa- 
rently to  the  Australians — many  of  these  natives  having 
had  scarcely  any  intercourse  with  Europeans — are  suffi- 
cient to  show  that  shrugging  the  shoulders,  accompanied 
in  some  cases  by  the  other  proper  movements,  is  a  ges- 
ture natural  to  mankind. 

This  gesture  implies  an  unintentional  or  unavoidable 
action  on  our  own  part,  or  one  that  we  cannot  perform  ; 
or  an  action  performed  by  another  person  which  we 
cannot  prevent.  It  accompanies  such  speeches  as,  "  It 
"  was  not  my  fault ;"  "  It  is  impossible  for  me  to  grant 
4*  this  favour ;"  "  He  must  follow  his  own  course,  I  can- 


270  HELPLESSNESS  I  ClIAP-  XI- 

"  not  stop  him."  Shrugging  the  shoulders  likewise  ex- 
presses patience,  or  the  absence  of  any  intention  to  resist. 
Hence  the  muscles  which  raise  the  shoulders  are  some- 
times called,  as  I  have  been  informed  by  an  artist,  "  the 
"  patience  muscles."  Shy  lock  the  Jew,  says, 

"  Signer  Antonio,  many  a  time  and  oft 
In  the  Rialto  have  you  rated  me 
About  my  monies  and  usances ; 
Still  have  I  borne  it  with  a  patient  shrug." 

Merchant  of  Venice,  act  i.  sc.  3. 

Sir  C.  Bell  has  given u  a  life-like  figure  of  a  man, 
who  is  shrinking  back  from  some  terrible  danger,  and  is 
on  the  point  of  screaming  out  in  abject  terror.  He  is 
represented  with  his  shoulders  lifted  up  almost  to  his 
ears ;  and  this  at  once  declares  that  there  is  no  thought 
of  resistance. 

As  shrugging  the  shoulders  generally  implies  "  I 
"  cannot  do  this  or  that,"  so  by  a  slight  change,  it 
sometimes  implies  "  I  won't  do  it."  The  movement 
then  expresses  a  dogged  determination  not  to  act. 
Olmsted  describes15  an  Indian  in  Texas  as  giving  a 
great  shrug  to  his  shoulders,  when  he  was  informed  that 
a  party  of  men  were  Germans  and  not  Americans,  thus 
expressing  that  he  would  have  nothing  to  do  with 
them.  Sulky  and  obstinate  children  may  be  seen 
with  both  their  shoulders  raised  high  up;  but  this 
movement  is  not  associated  with  the  others  which 
generally  accompany  a  true  shrug.  An  excellent  ob- 
server16 in  describing  a  young  man  who  was  deter- 
mined not  to  yield  to  his  father's  desire,  says,  "He 
"  thrust  his  hands  deep  down  into  his  pockets,  and 
"  set  up  his  shoulders  to  his  ears,  which  was  a  good 

14  '  Anatomy  of  Expression/  p.  166. 

15  « Journey  through  Texas,'  p.  352. 

16  Mrs.  Oliphant, 4  The  Browulows,'  vol.  ii.  p.  206. 


CHAP.  XI.  SHRUGGING  THE   SHOULDERS.  271 

"  warning  that,  come  right  or  wrong,  this  rock  should 
"  fly  from  its  firm  base  as  soon  as  Jack  would ;  and 
"  that  any  remonstrance  on  the  subject  was  purely 
"  futile."  As  soon  as  the  son  got  his  own  way,  he 
"  put  his  shoulders  into  their  natural  position." 

Kesignation  is  sometimes  shown  by  the  open  hands 
being  placed,  one  over  the  other,  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  body.  I  should  not  have  thought  this  little  gesture 
worth  even  a  passing  notice,  had  not  Dr.  W.  Ogle  re- 
marked to  me  that  he  had  two  or  three  times  observed 
it  in  patients  who  were  preparing  for  operations  under 
chloroform.  They  exhibited  no  great  fear,  but  seemed 
to  declare  by  this  posture  of  their  hands,  that  they  had 
made  up  their  minds,  and  were  resigned  to  the  inevi- 
table. 

We  may  now  inquire  why  men  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  when  they  feel, — whether  or  not  they  wish  to 
show  this  feeling, — that  they  cannot  or  will  not  do 
something,  or  will  not  resist  something  if  done  by 
another,  shrug  their  shoulders,  at  the  same  time  often 
bending  in  their  elbows,  showing  the  palms  of  their 
hands  with  extended  fingers,  often  throwing  their  heads 
a  little  on  one  side,  raising  their  eyebrows,  and  opening 
their  mouths.  These  states  of  the  mind  are  either 
simply  passive,  or  show  a  determination  not  to  act. 
None  of  the  above  movements  are  of  the  least  service. 
The  explanation  lies,  I  cannot  doubt,  in  the  principle 
of  unconscious  antithesis.  This  principle  here  seems 
to  come  into  play  as  clearly  as  in  the  case  of  a  dog, 
who,  when  feeling  savage,  puts  himself  in  the  proper 
attitude  for  attacking  and  for  making  himself  appear 
terrible  to  his  enemy;  but  as  soon  as  he  feels  affectionate, 
throws  his  whole  body  into  a  directly  opposite  attitude, 
though  this  is  of  no  direct  use  to  him. 

Let  it  be  observed  how  an  indignant  man,  who  resents, 


272  HELPLESSNESS :  CHAP.  XI 

and  will  not  submit  to  some  injury,  holds  his  head  erect, 
squares  his  shoulders,  and  expands  his  chest.  He  often 
clenches  his  fists,  and  puts  one  or  both  arms  in  the 
proper  position  for  attack  or  defence,  with  the  muscles 
of  his  limbs  rigid.  He  frowns, — that  is,  he  contracts 
and  lowers  his  brows, — and,  being  determined,  closes 
his  mouth.  The  actions  and  attitude  of  a  helpless  man 
are,  in  every  one  of  these  respects,  exactly  the  reverse. 
In  Plate  VI.  we  may.  imagine  one  of  the  figures  on  the 
left  side  to  have  just  said,  "What  do  you  mean  by 
"  insulting  me?"  and  one  of  the  figures  on  the  right 
side  to  answer,  "  I  really  could  not  help  it."  The  help- 
less man  unconsciously  contracts  the  muscles  of  his  fore- 
head which  are  antagonistic  to  those  that  cause  a  frown, 
and  thus  raises  his  eyebrows ;  at  the  same  time  he  re- 
laxes the  muscles  about  the  mouth,  so  that  the  lower  jaw 
drops.  The  antithesis  is  complete  in  every  detail,  not 
only  in  the  movements  of  the  features,  but  in  the  position 
of  the  limbs  and  in  the  attitude  of  the  whole  body,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  accompanying  plate.  As  the  helpless  or 
apologetic  man  often  wishes  to  show  his  state  of  mind, 
he  then  acts  in  a  conspicuous  or  demonstrative  manner. 
In  accordance  with  the  fact  that  squaring  the  elbows 
and  clenching  the  fists  are  gestures  by  no  means  uni- 
versal with  the  men  of  all  races,  when  they  feel  indig- 
nant and  are  prepared  to  attack  their  enemy,  so  it 
appears  that  a  helpless  or  apologetic  frame  of  mind  is 
expressed  in  many  parts  of  the  world  by  merely  shrug- 
ging the  shoulders,  without  turning  inwards  the  elbows 
and  opening  the  hands.  The  man  or  child  who  is 
obstinate,  or  one  who  is  resigned  to  some  great  mis- 
fortune, has  in  neither  case  any  idea  of  resistance  by 
active  means ;  and  he  expresses  this  state  of  mind,  by 
simply  keeping  his  shoulders  raised ;  or  he  may  possibly 
fold  his  arms  across  his  breast. 


CHAP.  XI.  SIGNS   OF  AFFIRMATION,  ETC.  273 

Signs  of  affirmation  or  approval,  and  of  negation  or 
disapproval:  nodding  and  shaking  the  head. — I  was 
curious  to  ascertain  how  far  the  common  signs  used  by 
us  in  affirmation  and  negation  were  general  throughout 
the  world.  These  signs  are  indeed  to  a  certain  extent 
expressive  of  our  feelings,  as  we  give  a  vertical  nod  of 
approval  with  a  smile  to  our  children,  when  we  approve 
of  their  conduct ;  and  shake  our  heads  laterally  with  a 
frown,  when  we  disapprove.  With  infants,  the  first  act 
of  denial  consists  in  refusing  food ;  and  I  repeatedly 
noticed  with  my  own  infants,  that  they  did  so  by 
withdrawing  their  heads  laterally  from  the  breast,  or 
from  anything  offered  them  in  a  spoon.  In  accepting 
food  and  taking  it  into  their  mouths,  they  incline  their 
heads  forwards.  Since  making  these  observations  I 
have  been  informed  that  the  same  idea  had  occurred 
to  Charma.17  It  deserves  notice  that  in  accepting  or 
taking  food,  there  is  only  a  single  movement  forward, 
and  a  single  nod  implies  an  affirmation.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  refusing  food,  especially  if  it  be  pressed  on 
them,  children  frequently  move  their  heads  several 
times  from  side  to  side,  as  we  do  in  shaking  our  heads 
in  negation.  Moreover,  in  the  case  of  refusal,  the  head 
is  not  rarely  thrown  backwards,  or  the  mouth  is  closed, 
so  that  these  movements  might  likewise  come  to  serve 
as  signs  of  negation.  Mr.  Wedgwood  remarks  on  this 
subject,18  that  "  when  the  voice  is  exerted  with  closed 
"  teeth  or  lips,  it  produces  the  sound  of  the  letter  n  or 
"  m.  Hence  we  may  account  for  the  use  of  the  particle 
*  ne  to  signify  negation,  and  possibly  also  of  the  Greek 
"  jLt  in  the  same  sense." 


17  *  Essai  sur  le  Langage,'  2nd  edit.  1846.    I  am  much  indebted  to 
Miss  Wedgwood  for  having  given  me  this  information,  with  an  extraot 
from  the  work. 

18  '  On  the  Origin  of  Language,'  18C6,  p.  91. 


274  SIGNS  OF  AFFIRMATION  CHAP.  XI. 

That  these  signs  are  innate  or  instinctive,  at  least 
with  Anglo-Saxons,  is  rendered  highly  probable  by  the 
blind  and  deaf  Laura  Bridgmaii  "constantly  accom- 
"  panying  her  yes  with  the  common  affirmative  nod, 
"  and  her  no  with  our  negative  shake  of  the  head." 
Had  not  Mr.  Lieber  stated  to  the  contrary,19  I  should 
have  imagined  that  these  gestures  might  have  been 
acquired  or  learnt  by  her,  considering  her  wonderful 
sense  of  touch  and  appreciation  of  the  movements  of 
others.  With  microcephalous  idiots,  who  are  so  de- 
graded that  they  never  learn  to  speak,  one  of  them 
is  described  by  Yogt,20  as  answering,  when  asked 
whether  he  wished  for  more  food  or  drink,  by  inclining 
or  shaking  his  head.  Schmalz,  in  his  remarkable  dis- 
sertation on  the  education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  as  well 
as  of  children  raised  only  one  degree  above  idiotcy, 
assumes  that  they  can  always  both  make  and  under- 
stand the  common  signs  of  affirmation  and  negation.21 

Nevertheless  if  we  look  to  the  various  races  of  man, 
these  signs  are  not  so  universally  employed  as  I  should 
have  expected ;  yet  they  seem  too  general  to  be  ranked 
as  altogether  conventional  or  artificial.  My  informants 
assert  that  both  signs  are  used  by  the  Malays,  by  the 
natives  of  Ceylon,  the  Chinese,  the  negroes  of  the 
Guinea  coast,  and,  according  to  Gaika,  by  the  Kafirs  of 
South  Africa,  though  with  these  latter  people  Mrs. 
Barber  has  never  seen  a  lateral  shake  used  as  a  nega- 
tive. With  respect  to  the  Australians,  seven  observers 
agree  that  a  nod  is  given  in  affirmation ;  five  agree 
about  a  lateral  shake  in  negation,  accompanied  or  not 

19  '  On  the  Vocal  Sounds  of  L.  Bridgman ;'  Smithsonian  Contribu- 
tions, 1851,  vol.  ii.  p.  11. 

20  '  Memoire  sur  les  Microcephales/  1867,  p.  27. 

21  Quoted  by  T^lor,  '  Early  History  of  Mankind,'  2nd  edit.  1870, 
p.  38. 


CHAP.  XI.  AND  NEGATION.  275 

by  some  word;  but  Mr.  Dyson  Lacy  has  never  seen 
this  latter  sign  in  Queensland,  and  Mr.  Bulmer  says 
that  in  Gipps'  Land  a  negative  is  expressed  by  throwing 
the  head  a  little  backwards  and  putting  out  the  tongue. 
At  the  northern  extremity  of  the  continent,  near  Torres 
Straits,  the  natives  when  uttering  a  negative  "don't 
"  shake  the  head  with  it,  but  holding  up  the  right 
"  hand,  shake  it  by  turning  it  half  round  and  back 
"  again  two  or  three  times." 22  The  throwing  back  of 
the  head  with  a  cluck  of  the  tongue  is  said  to  be  used 
as  a  negative  by  the  modern  Greeks  and  Turks,  the 
latter  people  expressing  yes  by  a  movement  like  that 
made  by  us  when  we  shake  our  heads.23  The  Abys- 
sinians,  as  I  am  informed  by  Captain  Speedy,  express  a 
negative  by  jerking  the  head  to  the  right  shoulder, 
together  with  a  slight  cluck,  the  mouth  being  closed ; 
an  affirmation  is  expressed  by  the  head  being  thrown 
backwards  and  the  eyebrows  raised  for  an  instant.  The 
Tagals  of  Luzon,  in  the  Philippine  Archipelago,  as  I 
hear  from  Dr.  Adolf  Meyer,  when  they  say  "yes,"  also 
throw  the  head  backwards.  According  to  the  Eajah 
Brooke,  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo  express  an  affirmation  by 
raising  the  eyebrows,  and  a  negation  by  slightly  con- 
tracting them,  together  with  a  peculiar  look  from  the 
eyes.  With  the  Arabs  on  the  Nile,  Professor  and  Mrs. 
Asa  Gray  concluded  that  nodding  in  affirmation  was 
rare,  whilst  shaking  the  head  in  negation  was  never 
used,  and  was  not  even  understood  by  them.  With  the 
Esquimaux24  a  nod  means  yes  and  a  wink  no.  The 
New  Zealanders  "  elevate  the  head  and  chin  in  place 
"  of  nodding  acquiescence." 25 

22  Mr.  J.  B.  Jukes,  '  Letters  and  Extracts,'  &c.  1871,  p.  248. 

23  F.  Lieber, « On  the  Vocal  Sounds,'  &c.  p.  11.    Tylor,  ibid.  p.  53. 
2*  Dr.  King,  Edinburgh  Phil.  Journal,  1845,  p.  313. 

25  Tylor,  'Early  History  of  Mankind,'  2nd  edit.  1870,  p.  53. 


276  SIGNS  OF  AFFIRMATION  CHAP.  XI. 

With  the  Hindoos  Mr.  H.  Erskine  concludes  from 
inquiries  made  from  experienced  Europeans,  and  from 
native  gentlemen,  that  the  signs  of  affirmation  and 
negation  vary — a  nod  and  a  lateral  shake  being  some- 
times used  as  we  do ;  but  a  negative  is  more  commonly 
expressed  by  the  head  being  thrown  suddenly  back- 
wards and  a  little  to  one  side,  with  a  cluck  of  the 
tongue.  What  the  meaning  may  be  of  this  cluck 
of  the  tongue,  which  has  been  observed  with  various 
people,  I  cannot  imagine.  A  native  gentleman  stated 
that  affirmation  is  frequently  shown  by  the  head  being 
thrown  to  the  left.  I  asked  Mr.  Scott  to  attend  par- 
ticularly to  this  point,  and,  after  repeated  observations, 
he  believes  that  a  vertical  nod  is  not  commonly  used 
by  the  natives  in  affirmation,  but  that  the  head  is  first 
thrown  backwards  either  to  the  left  or  right,  and  then 
jerked  obliquely  forwards  only  once.  This  movement 
would  perhaps  have  been  described  by  a  less  careful 
observer  as  a  lateral  shake.  He  also  states  that  in 
negation  the  head  is  usually  held  nearly  upright,  and 
shaken  several  times. 

Mr.  Bridges  informs  me  that  the  Fuegians  nod  their 
heads  vertically  in  affirmation,  and  shake  them  laterally 
in  denial.  With  the  wild  Indians  of  North  America, 
according  to  Mr.  Washington  Matthews,  nodding  and 
shaking  the  head  have  been  learnt  from  Europeans, 
and  are  not  naturally  employed.  They  express  affirma- 
tion "by  describing  with  the  hand  (all  the  fingers 
"  except  the  index  being  flexed)  a  curve  downwards 
"  and  outwards  from  the  body,  whilst  negation  is  ex- 
"  pressed  by  moving  the  open  hand  outwards,  with  the 
"  palm  facing  inwards."  Other  observers  state  that 
the  sign  of  affirmation  with  these  Indians  is  the  fore- 
finger being  raised,  and  then  lowered  and  pointed  to  the 
ground,  or  the  hand  is  waved  straight  forward  from  the 


CHAP.  XI.  AND  NEGATION.  277 

face ;  and  that  the  sign  of  negation  is  the  finger  or  whole 
hand  shaken  from  side  to  side.26  This  latter  movement 
probably  represents  in  all  cases  the  lateral  shaking  of 
the  head.  The  Italians  are  said  in  like  manner  to 
move  the  lifted  finger  from  right  to  left  in  negation,  as 
indeed  we  English  sometimes  do. 

On  the  whole  we  find  considerable  diversity  in  the 
signs  of  affirmation  and  negation  in  the  different  races 
of  man.  With  respect  to  negation,  if  we  admit  that 
the  shaking  of  the  finger  or  hand  from  side  to  side  is 
symbolic  of  the  lateral  movement  of  the  head ;  and  if 
we  admit  that  the  sudden  backward  movement  of  the 
head  represents  one  of  the  actions  often  practised  by 
young  children  in  refusing  food,  then  there  is  much 
uniformity  throughout  the  world  in  the  signs  of  negation^ 
and  we  can  see  how  they  originated.  The  most  marked 
exceptions  are  presented  by  the  Arabs,  Esquimaux, 
some  Australian  tribes,  and  Dyaks.  With  the  latter  a 
frown  is  the  sign  of  negation,  and  with  us  frowning 
often  accompanies  a  lateral  shake  of  the  head. 

With  respect  to  nodding  in  affirmation,  the  excep- 
tions are  rather  more  numerous,  namely  with  some  of 
the  Hindoos,  with  the  Turks,  Abyssinians,  Dyaks, 
Tagals,  and  New  Zealanders.  The  eyebrows  are  some- 
times raised  in  affirmation,  and  as  a  person  in  bending 
his  head  forwards  and  downwards  naturally  looks  up 
to  the  person  whom  he  addresses,  he  will  be  apt  to 
raise  his  eyebrows,  and  this  sign  may  thus  have  arisen 
as  an  abbreviation.  So  again  with  the  New  Zealanders, 
the  lifting  up  the  chin  and  head  in  affirmation  may 
perhaps  represent  in  an  abbreviated  form  the  upward 
movement  of  the  head  ai'ter  it  has  been  nodded  forwards 
and  downwards. 

26  Lubbock,  '  The  Origin  of  Civilization,'  1870,  p.  277.  Tylor,  ibid, 
p.  38.  Lieber  (ibid.  p.  11)  remarks  on  the  negative  of  the  Italians. 


278  SUKPEISE.  CHAP.  X1L 


CHAPTER     XII. 

SURPRISE  —  ASTONISHMENT  —  FEAR  —  HORROR. 

Surprise,  astonishment  —  Elevation  of  the  eyebrows  —  Opening 
the  mouth  —  Protrusion  of  the  lips  —  Gestures  accompanying 
surprise  —  Admiration  —  Fear  —  Terror  —  Erection  of  the  hair 
—  Contraction  of  the  platysma  muscle  —  Dilatation  of  the 
pupils  —  Horror  —  Conclusion. 

ATTENTION,  if  sudden  and  close,  graduates  into  sur- 
prise ;  and  this  into  astonishment  ;  and  this  into 
stupefied  amazement.  The  latter  frame  of  mind  is 
closely  akin  to  terror.  Attention  is  shown  by  the  eye- 
brows being  slightly  raised  ;  and  as  this  state  increases 
into  surprise,  they  are  raised  to  a  much  greater  extent, 
with  the  eyes  and  mouth  widely  open.  The  raising  of 
the  eyebrows  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  eyes  should 
be  opened  quickly  and  widely;  and  this  movement 
produces  transverse  wrinkles  across  the  forehead.  The 
degree  to  which  the  eyes  and  mouth  are  opened  corre- 
sponds with  the  degree  of  surprise  felt ;  but  these 
movements  must  be  co-ordinated ;  for  a  widely  opened 
mouth  with  eyebrows  only  slightly  raised  results  in  a 
meaningless  grimace,  as  Dr.  Duchenne  has  shown  in 
one  of  his  photographs.1  On  the  other  hand,  a  person 
may  often  be  seen  to  pretend  surprise  by  merely  raising 
his  eyebrows. 

Dr.  Duchenne  has  given  a  photograph  of  an  old 
man  with  his  eyebrows  well  elevated  and  arched  by  the 
galvanization  of  the  frontal  muscle  ;  and  with  his 

1  « Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie,'  Album,  1862,  p.  42. 


CHAP.  XII.  SURPRISE.  279 

mouth  voluntarily  opened.  This  figure  expresses  sur- 
prise with  much  truth.  I  showed  it  to  twenty-four 
persons  without  a  word  of  explanation,  and  one  alone 
did  not  at  all  understand  what  was  intended.  A  second 
person  answered  terror,  which  is  not  far  wrong;  some 
of  the  others,  however,  added  to  the  words  surprise  or 
astonishment,  the  epithets  horrified,  woful,  painful,  or 
disgusted. 

The  eyes  and  mouth  being  widely  open  is  an  expres- 
sion universally  recognised  as  one  of  surprise  or  aston- 
ishment. Thus  Shakespeare  says,  "  I  saw  a  smith  stand 
"  with  open  mouth  swallowing  a  tailor's  news."  ('King 
John/  act  iv.  scene  ii.)  And  again,  "They  seemed 
"  almost,  with  staring  on  one  another,  to  tear  the  cases 
"  of  their  eyes ;  there  was  speech  in  their  dumbness, 
"  language  in  their  very  gesture  ;  they  looked  as  they 
"  had  heard  of  a  world  destroyed."  ('Winter's  Tale,' 
act  v.  scene  ii.) 

My  informants  answer  with  remarkable  uniformity  to 
the  same  effect,  with  respect  to  the  various  races  of 
man ;  the  above  movements  of  the  features  being  often 
accompanied  by  certain  gestures  and  sounds,  presently 
to  be  described.  Twelve  observers  in  different  parts  of 
Australia  agree  on  this  head.  Mr.  Winwood  Keade 
has  observed  this  expression  with  the  negroes  on  the 
Guinea  coast.  The  chief  Gaika  and  others  answer  yes 
to  my  query  with  respect  to  the  Kafirs  of  South  Africa; 
and  so  do  others  emphatically  with  reference  to  the 
Abyssinians,  Ceylonese,  Chinese,  Fuegians,  various 
tribes  of  North  America,  and  New  Zealanders.  With 
the  latter,  Mr.  Stack  states  that  the  expression  is  more 
plainly  shown  by  certain  individuals  than  by  others, 
though  all  endeavour  as  much  as  possible  to  conceal 
their  feelings.  The  Dyaks  of  Borneo  are  said  by  the 
Rajah  Brooke  to  open  their  eyes  widely,  when  aston- 


280  ASTONISHMENT.  CHAP.  XII. 

ished,  often  swinging  their  heads  to  and  fro,  and  beating 
their  breasts.  Mr.  Scott  informs  me  that  the  workmen 
in  the  Botanic  Gardens  at  Calcutta  are  strictly  ordered 
not  to  smoke;  but  they  often  disobey  this  order,  and 
when  suddenly  surprised  in  the  act,  they  first  open  their 
eyes  and  mouths  widely.  They  then  often  slightly  shrug 
their  shoulders,  as  they  perceive  that  discovery  is  in- 
evitable, or  frown  and  stamp  on  the  ground  from  vexa- 
tion. Soon  they  recover  from  their  surprise,  and  abject 
fear  is  exhibited  by  the  relaxation  of  all  their  muscles ; 
their  heads  seem  to  sink  between  their  shoulders ;  their 
fallen  eyes  wander  to  and  fro;  and  they  supplicate 
forgiveness. 

The  well-known  Australian  explorer,  Mr.  Stuart,  has 
given2  a  striking  account  of  stupefied  amazement 
together  with  terror  in  a  native  who  had  never  before 
seen  a  man  on  horseback.  Mr.  Stuart  approached 
unseen  and  called  to  him  from  a  little  distance.  "  He 
"  turned  round  and  saw  me.  What  he  imagined  I 
u  was  I  do  not  know ;  but  a  finer  picture  of  fear  and 
"  astonishment  I  never  saw.  He  stood  incapable  of 
"  moving  a  limb,  riveted  to  the  spot,  mouth  open  and 
"  eyes  staring.  .  . .  He  remained  motionless  until  our 
"  black  got  within  a  few  yards  of  him,  when  suddenly 
"  throwing  down  his  waddies,  he  jumped  into  a  mulga 
"  bush  as  high  as  he  could  get."  He  could  not  speak, 
and  answered  not  a  word  to  the  inquiries  made  by 
the  black,  but,  trembling  from  head  to  foot,  "  waved 
"  with  his  hand  for  us  to  be  off." 

That  the  eyebrows  are  raised  by  an  innate  or  instinc- 
tive impulse  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  Laura 
Bridgman  invariably  acts  thus  when  astonished,  as  I 
have  been  assured  by  the  lady  who  has  lately  had 


1  The  Polyglot  News  Letter/  Melbourne,  Dec.  1858,  p.  2. 


CHAP.  XII.  ASTONISHMENT.  281 

charge  of  her.  As  surprise  is  excited  by  something 
unexpected  or  unknown,  we  naturally  desire,  when 
startled,  to  perceive  the  cause  as  quickly  as  possible ; 
and  we  consequently  open  our  eyes  fully,  so  that  the 
field  of  vision  may  be  increased,  and  the  eyeballs  moved 
easily  in  any  direction.  But  this  hardly  accounts  for 
the  eyebrows  being  so  greatly  raised  as  is  the  case,  and 
for  the  wild  staring  of  the  open  eyes.  The  explanation 
lies,  I  believe,  in  the  impossibility  of  opening  the  eyes 
with  great  rapidity  by  merely  raising  the  upper  lids. 
To  effect  this  the  eyebrows  must  be  lifted  energetically. 
Any  one  who  will  try  to  open  his  eyes  as  quickly  as 
possible  before  a  mirror  will  find  that  he  acts  thus ;  and 
the  energetic  lifting  up  of  the  eyebrows  opens  the  eyes 
so  widely  that  they  stare,  the  white  being  exposed  all 
round  the  iris.  Moreover,  the  elevation  of  the  eyebrows 
is  an  advantage  in  looking  upwards ;  for  as  long  as  they 
are  lowered  they  impede  our  vision  in  this  direction. 
Sir  C.  Bell  gives3  a  curious  little  proof  of  the  part 
which  the  eyebrows  play  in  opening  the  eyelids.  In  a 
stupidly  drunken  man  all  the  muscles  are  relaxed,  and 
the  eyelids  consequently  droop,  in  the  same  manner  as 
when  we  are  falling  asleep.  To  counteract  this  ten- 
dency the  drunkard  raises  his  eyebrows ;  and  this  gives 
to  him  a  puzzled,  foolish  look,  as  is  well  represented 
in  one  of  Hogarth's  drawings.  The  habit  of  raising  the 
eyebrows  having  once  been  gained  in  order  to  see  as 
quickly  as  possible  all  around  us,  the  movement  would 
follow  from  the  force  of  association  whenever  astonish- 
ment was  felt  from  any  cause,  even  from  a  sudden 
sound  or  an  idea. 

With  adult  persons,  when  the  eyebrows  are  raised, 
the  whole  forehead  becomes  much  wrinkled  in  trans- 


8  '  The  Anatomy  of  ExpressioD,'  p  106. 
13 


282  ASTONISHMENT.  CHAP.  XII. 

verse  lines ;  but  with  children  this  occurs  only  to  a  slight 
degree.  The  wrinkles  run  in  lines  concentric  with  each 
eyebrow,  and  are  partially  confluent  in  the  middle.  They 
are  highly  characteristic  of  the  expression  of  surprise 
or  astonishment.  Each  eyebrow,  when  raised,  becomes 
also,  as  Duchenne  remarks,4  more  arched  than  it  was 
before. 

The  cause  of  the  mouth  being  opened  when  astonish- 
ment is  felt,  is  a  much  more  complex  affair ;  and  several 
causes  apparently  concur  in  leading  to  this  movement. 
It  has  often  been  supposed 5  that  the  sense  of  hearing 
is  thus  rendered  more  acute ;  but  I  have  watched 
persons  listening  intently  to  a  slight  noise,  the  nature 
and  source  of  which  they  knew  perfectly,  and  they 
did  not  open  their  mouths.  Therefore  I  at  one  time 
imagined  that  the  open  mouth  might  aid  in  dis- 
tinguishing the  direction  whence  a  sound  proceeded, 
by  giving  another  channel  for  its  entrance  into  the  ear 
through  the  eustachian  tube.  But  Dr.  W.  Ogle 6  has 
been  so  kind  as  to  search  the  best  recent  authorities  on 
the  functions  of  the  eustachian  tube ;  and  he  informs 
me  that  it  is  almost  conclusively  proved  that  it  remains 
closed  except  during  the  act  of  deglutition ;  and  that  in 
persons  in  whom  the  tube  remains  abnormally  open,  the 
sense  of  hearing,  as  far  as  external  sounds  are  con- 
cerned, is  by  no  means  improved;  on  the  contrary,  it 
is  impaired  by  the  respiratory  sounds  being  rendered 
more  distinct.  If  a  watch  be  placed  within  the  mouth, 
but  not  allowed  to  touch  the  sides,  the  ticking  is  heard 
much  less  plainly  than  when  held  outside.  In  persons 


4  *  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie,'  Album,  p.  6. 

5  See,  for  instance,  Dr.  Piderit  ('  Mimik  und  Physiognomik,'  s.  88), 
who  has  a  good  discussion  on  the  expression  of  surprise. 

6  Dr.  Murie  has  also  given  me  information  leading  to  the  same  con- 
clusion, d.  rived  in  part  from  comparative  anatomy. 


CHAP.  XII.  ASTONISHMENT.  283 

in  whom  from  disease  or  a  cold  the  eustachian  tube  is 
permanently  or  temporarily  closed,  the  sense  of  hearing 
is  injured  ;  but  this  may  be  accounted  for  by  mucus 
accumulating  within  the  tube,  and  the  consequent 
exclusion  of  air.  We  may  therefore  infer  that  the 
mouth  is  not  kept  open  under  the  sense  of  astonish- 
ment for  the  sake  of  hearing  sounds  more  distinctly ; 
notwithstanding  that  most  deaf  people  keep  their  mouths 
open. 

Every  sudden  emotion,  including  astonishment, 
quickens  the  action  of  the  heart,  and  with  it  the 
respiration.  Now  we  can  breathe,  as  Gratiolet  remarks7 
and  as  appears  to  me  to  be  the  case,  much  more 
quietly  through  the  open  mouth  than  through  the 
nostrils.  Therefore,  when  we  wish  to  listen  intently  to 
any  sound,  we  either  stop  breathing,  or  breathe  as 
quietly  as  possible,  by  opening  our  mouths,  at  the  same 
time  keeping  our  bodies  motionless.  One  of  my  sons 
was  awakened  in  the  night  by  a  noise  under  circum- 
stances which  naturally  led  to  great  care,  and  after  a 
few  minutes  he  perceived  that  his  mouth  was  widely- 
open.  He  then  became  conscious  that  he  had  opened 
it  for  the  sake  of  breathing  as  quietly  as  possible. 
This  view  receives  support  from  the  reversed  case 
which  occurs  with  dogs.  A  dog  when  panting  after 
exercise,  or  on  a  hot  day,  breathes  loudly ;  but  if  his 
attention  be  suddenly  aroused,  he  instantly  pricks  his 
ears  to  listen,  shuts  his  mouth,  and  breathes  quietly,  as 
he  is  enabled  to  do,  through  his  nostrils. 

When  the  attention  is  concentrated  for  a  length  of 
time  with  fixed  earnestness  on  any  object  or  subject, 
all  the  organs  of  the  body  are  forgotten  and  neglected  ;8 


'  De  la  Pbysionomie,'  1865,  p.  234. 
8  See,  on  this  subject,  Gratiolet,  ibid.  p.  254. 


284  ASTONISHMENT.  CHAP.  XII. 

and  as  the  nervous  energy  of  each  individual  is  limited 
in  amount,  little  is  transmitted  to  any  part  of  the 
system,  excepting  that  which  is  at  the  time  brought  into 
energetic  action.  Therefore  many  of  the  muscles  tend 
to  become  relaxed,  and  the  jaw  drops  from  its  own 
weight.  This  will  account  for  the  dropping  of  the  jaw 
and  open  mouth  of  a  man  stupefied  with  amazement, 
and  perhaps  when  less  strongly  affected.  I  have  noticed 
this  appearance,  as  I  find  recorded  in  my  notes,  in  very 
young  children  when  they  were  only  moderately  sur- 
prised. 

There  is  still  another  and  highly  effective  cause, 
leading  to  the  mouth  being  opened,  when  we  are 
astonished,  and  more  especially  when  we  are  suddenly 
startled.  We  can  draw  a  full  and  deep  inspiration 
much  more  easily  through  the  widely  open  mouth 
than  through  the  nostrils.  Now  when  we  start  at  any 
sudden  sound  or  sight,  almost  all  the  muscles  of  the 
body  are  involuntarily  and  momentarily  thrown  into 
strong  action,  for  the  sake  of  guarding  ourselves  against 
or  jumping  away  from  the  danger,  which  we  habitually 
associate  with  anything  unexpected.  But  we  always 
unconsciously  prepare  ourselves  for  any  great  exertion, 
as  formerly  explained,  by  first  taking  a  deep  and  full 
inspiration,  and  we  consequently  open  our  mouths.  If 
no  exertion  follows,  and  we  still  remain  astonished,  we 
cease  for  a  time  to  breathe,  or  breathe  as  quietly  as 
possible,  in  order  that  every  sound  may  be  distinctly 
heard.  Or  again,  if  our  attention  continues  long  and 
earnestly  absorbed,  all  our  muscles  become  relaxed,  and 
the  jaw,  which  was  at  first  suddenly  opened,  remains 
dropped.  Thus  several  causes  concur  to  wards  this  same 
movement,  whenever  surprise,  astonishment,  or  amaze- 
ment is  felt. 

Although  when  thus  affected,  our  mouths  are  gene- 


CHAP  XII.  ASTONISHMENT.  285 

rail)-  opened,  yet  the  lips  are  often  a  little  protruded. 
This  fact  reminds  us  of  the  same  movement,  though 
in  a  much  more  strongly  marked  degree,  in  the  chim- 
panzee and  orang  when  astonished.  As  a  strong  ex- 
piration naturally  follows  the  deep  inspiration  which 
accompanies  the  first  sense  of  startled  surprise,  and  as 
the  lips  are  often  protruded,  the  various  sounds  which 
are  then  commonly  uttered  can  apparently  be  accounted 
for.  But  sometimes  a  strong  expiration  alone  is  heard ; 
thus  Laura  Bridgman,  when  amazed,  rounds  and  pro- 
trudes her  lips,  opens  them,  and  breathes  strongly.9 
One  of  the  commonest  sounds  is  a  deep  Oh  ;  and  this 
would  naturally  follow,  as  explained  by  Helmholtz,  from 
the  mouth  being  moderately  opened  and  the  lips  pro- 
truded. On  a  quiet  night  some  rockets  were  fired 
from  the  '  Beagle/  in  a  little  creek  at  Tahiti,  to  amuse 
the  natives ;  and  as  each  rocket  was  let  off  there  was 
absolute  silence,  but  this  was  invariably  followed  by  a 
deep  groaning  Oh,  resounding  all  round  the  bay.  Mr. 
Washington  Matthews  says  that  the  North  American 
Indians  express  astonishment  by  a  groan;  and  the 
negroes  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  according  to 
Mr.  Winwood  Reade,  protrude  their  lips,  and  make 
a  sound  like  heigh,  heigh.  If  the  mouth  is  not  much 
opened,  whilst  the  lips  are  considerably  protruded,  a 
blowing,  hissing,  or  whistling  noise  is  produced.  Mr. 
B.  Brough  Smith  informs  me  that  an  Australian  from 
the  interior  was  taken  to  the  theatre  to  see  an  acrobat 
rapidly  turning  head  over  heels:  "he  was  greatly 
"  astonished,  and  protruded  his  lips,  making  a  noise 
"  with  his  mouth  as  if  blowing  out  a  match.'*  Accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Bulmer  the  Australians,  when  surprised,  utter 


9  Lieber,  •  On  the  Vocal  Sounds  of  Laura  Bridguian,'  Smithsonian 
Contributions,  1851,  vol.  ii.  p.  7. 


286  ASTONISHMENT.  CHAP.  XII. 

the  exclamation  Jcorki,  "and  to  do  this  the  mouth  is 
"  drawn  out  as  if  going  to  whistle."  We  Europeans 
often  whistle  as  a  sign  of  surprise ;  thus,  in  a  recent 
novel 10  it  is  said,  "  here  the  man  expressed  his  aston- 
"  ishment  and  disapprobation  by  a  prolonged  whistle." 
A  Kafir  girl,  as  Mr.  J.  Mansel  Weale  informs  me,  "  on 
"  hearing  of  the  high  price  of  an  article,  raised  her 
"  eyebrows  and  whistled  just  as  a  European  would." 
Mr.  Wedgwood  remarks  that  such  sounds  are  written 
down  as  whew,  and  they  serve  as  interjections  for  sur- 
prise. 

According  to  three  other  observers,  the  Australians 
often  evince  astonishment  by  a  clucking  noise.  Euro- 
peans also  sometimes  express  gentle  surprise  by  a  little 
clicking  noise  of  nearly  the  same  kind.  We  have  seen 
that  when  we  are  startled,  the  mouth  is  suddenly 
opened ;  and  if  the  tongue  happens  to  be  then  pressed 
closely  against  the  palate,  its  sudden  withdrawal  will 
produce  a  sound  of  this  kind,  which  might  thus  come 
to  express  surprise. 

Turning  to  gestures  of  the  body.  A  surprised  person 
often  raises  his  opened  hands  high  above  his  head,  or  by 
bending  his  arms  only  to  the  level  of  his  face.  The  flat 
palms  are  directed  towards  the  person  who  causes  this 
feeling,  and  the  straightened  fingers  are  separated. 
This  gesture  is  represented  by  Mr.  Kejlander  in  Plate 
VII.  fig.  1.  In  the  *  Last  Supper,'  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
two  of  the  Apostles  have  their  hands  half  uplifted, 
clearly  expressive  of  their  astonishment.  A  trust- 
worthy observer  told  me  that  he  had  lately  met  his  wife 
under  most  unexpected  circumstances :  "  She  started, 
"  opened  her  mouth  and  eyes  very  widely,  and  threw 
"  up  both  her  arms  above  her  head."  Several  years 


10  *  Wenderholme,'  vol.  ii.  p.  91. 


CHAP.  XII. 


ASTONISHMENT. 


287 


ago  I  was  surprised  by  seeing  several  of  my  young 
children  earnestly  doing  something  together  on  the 
ground ;  but  the  distance  was  too  great  for  me  to  ask 
what  they  were  about.  Therefore  I  threw  up  my  open 
hands  with  extended  fingers  above  my  head  ;  and  as  soon 
as  I  had  done  this,  I  became  conscious  of  the  action.  I 
then  waited,  without  saying  a  word,  to  see  if  my  children 
had  understood  this  gesture  ;  and  as  they  came  running 
to  me  they  cried  out,  "  We  saw  that  you  were  astonished 
"  at  us."  I  do  not  know  whether  this  gesture  is  common 
to  the  various  races  of  man,  as  I  neglected  to  make 
inquiries  on  this  head.  That  it  is  innate  or  natural  may 
be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  Laura  Bridgman,  when 
amazed,  "  spreads  her  arms  and  turns  her  hands  with 
"  extended  fingers  upwards ; "  u  nor  is  it  likely,  con- 
sidering that  the  feeling  of  surprise  is  generally  a  brief 
one,  that  she  should  have  learnt  this  gesture  through 
her  keen  sense  of  touch. 

Huschke  describes  la  a  somewhat  different  yet  allied 
gesture,  which  he  says  is  exhibited  by  persons  when 
astonished.  They  hold  themselves  erect,  with  the  fea- 
tures as  before  described,  but  with  the  straightened 
arms  extended  backwards — the  stretched  fingers  being 
separated  from  each  other.  I  have  never  myself  seen 
this  gesture;  but  Huschke  is  probably  correct;  for  a 
i'riend  asked  another  man  how  he  would  express  great 
astonishment,  and  he  at  once  threw  himself  into  this 
attitude. 

These  gestures  are,  I  believe,  explicable  on  the  prin- 


11  Lieber,  *  On  the  Vocal  Sounds/  &c.,  ibid.  p.  7. 

12  Huschke,  '  Mimices  et  Physiognomicea/  1821,  p.  18.    Gratiolet 
^De  la  Phys.  p.  255)  gives  a  figure  of  a  nmn  in  this  attitude,  which, 
however,  seems  to  me  expressive  of  fear  combined  with  astonishment. 
Le  Brun  also  refers  (Lavater,  vol.   ix.  p.  299)  to  the  hands  of  an 
astonished  man  being  opened. 


288  ASTONISHMENT.  CHAP.  XIL 

ciple  of  antithesis.  We  have  seen  that  an  indignant 
man  holds  his  head  erect,  squares  his  shoulders,  turns 
out  his  elbows,  often  clenches  his  fist,  frowns,  and  closes 
his  mouth ;  whilst  the  altitude  of  a  helpless  man  is  in 
every  one  of  these  details  the  reverse.  Now,  a  man  in  an 
ordinary  frame  of  mind,  doing  nothing  and  thinking  of 
nothing  in  particular,  usually  keeps  his  two  arms  sus- 
pended laxly  by  his  sides,  with  his  hands  somewhat 
flexed,  and  the  fingers  near  together.  Therefore,  to 
raise  the  arms  suddenly,  either  the  whole  arms  or  the 
fore-arms,  to  open  the  palms  flat,  and  to  separate  the 
fingers, — or,  again,  to  straighten  the  arms,  extending 
them  backwards  with  separated  fingers, — are  move- 
ments in  complete  antithesis  to  those  preserved  under 
an  indifferent  frame  of  mind,  and  they  are,  in  conse- 
quence, unconsciously  assumed  by  an  astonished  man. 
There  is,  also,  often  a  desire  to  display  surprise  in  a 
conspicuous  manner,  and  the  above  attitudes  are  well 
fitted  for  this  purpose.  It  may  be  asked  why  should 
surprise,  and  only  a  few  other  states  of  the  mind,  be 
exhibited  by  movements  in  antithesis  to  others.  But 
this  principle  will  not  be  brought  into  play  in  the  case 
of  those  emotions,  such  as  terror,  great  joy,  suffering, 
or  rage,  which  naturally  lead  to  certain  lines  of 
action  and  produce  certain  effects  on  the  body,  for 
the  whole  system  is  thus  preoccupied;  and  these 
emotions  are  already  thus  expressed  with  the  greatest 
plainness. 

There  is  another  little  gesture,  expressive  of  astonish- 
ment, of  which  I  can  offer  no  explanation ;  namely,  the 
hand  being  placed  over  the  mouth  or  on  some  part  of 
the  head.  This  has  been  observed  with  so  many  races 
of  man,  that  it  must  have  some  natural  origin.  A 
wild  Australian  was  taken  into  a  large  room  full  of 
official  papers,  which  surprised  him  greatly,  and  he 


CHAP.  XII.  FEAR.  289 

cried  out,  cluck,  duck,  cluck,  putting  the  back  of  his 
hand  towards  his  lips.  Mrs.  Barber  says  that  the  Kafirs 
and  Fingoea  express  astonishment  by  a  serious  look  and 
by  placing  the  right  hand  upon  the  mouth,  uttering 
the  word  mawo,  which  means  '  wonderful.'  The  Bush- 
men are  said 13  to  put  their  right  hands  to  their  necks, 
bending  their  heads  backwards.  Mr.  Winwood  Keade 
has  observed  that  the  negroes  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa, 
when  surprised,  clap  their  hands  to  their  mouths,  saying 
at  the  same  time,  "  My  mouth  cleaves  to  me,"  i.  e.  to 
my  hands ;  and  he  has  heard  that  this  is  their  usual 
gesture  on  such  occasions.  Captain  Speedy  informs  me 
that  the  Abyssinians  place  their  right  hand  to  the  fore- 
head, with  the  palm  outside.  Lastly,  Mr.  Washington 
Matthews  states  that  the  conventional  sign  of  astonish- 
ment with  the  wild  tribes  of  the  western  parts  of  the 
United  States  "  is  made  by  placing  the  half-closed  hand 
"  over  the  mouth ;  in  doing  this,  the  head  is  often  bent 
"  forwards,  and  words  or  low  groans  are  sometimes 
"  uttered."  Catlin  u  makes  the  same  remark  about  the 
hand  being  pressed  over  the  mouth  by  the  Mandans 
and  other  Indian  tribes. 

Admiration. — Little  need  be  said  on  this  head.  Ad- 
miration apparently  consists  of  surprise  associated  with 
some  pleasure  and  a  sense  of  approval.  When  vividly 
felt,  the  eyes  are  opened  and  the  eyebrows  raised ;  the 
eyes  become  bright,  instead  of  remaining  blank,  as 
under  simple  astonishment ;  and  the  mouth,  instead  of 
gaping  open,  expands  into  a  smile. 

Fear,  Terror, — The  word  '  fear '  seems  to  be  derived 


'»  Huscbke,  ibid.  p.  18. 

14  •  North  American  Indians,'  3rd  edit.  1842,  vol.  i.  p.  105. 


290  FEAR.  CHAP.  XIL 

from  what  is  sudden  and  dangerous ; 15  and  that  of  terror 
from  the  trembling  of  the  vocal  organs  and  body. 
I  use  the  word  '  terror '  for  extreme  fear ;  but  some 
writers  think  it  ought  to  be  confined  to  cases  in  which 
the  imagination  is  more  particularly  concerned.  Fear 
is  often  preceded  by  astonishment,  and  is  so  far  akin  to 
it,  that  both  lead  to  the  senses  of  sight  and  hearing 
being  instantly  aroused.  In  both  cases  the  eyes  and 
mouth  are  widely  opened,  and  the  eyebrows  raised. 
The  frightened  man  at  first  stands  like  a  statue  mo- 
tionless and  breathless,  or  crouches  down  as  if  instinc- 
tively to  escape  observation. 

The  heart  beats  quickly  and  violently,  so  that  it  pal- 
pitates or  knocks  against  the  ribs ;  but  it  is  very  doubt- 
ful whether  it  then  works  more  efficiently  than  usual, 
so  as  to  send  a  greater  supply  of  blood  to  all  parts  of 
the  body ;  for  the  skin  instantly  becomes  pale,  as  during 
incipient  faintness.  This  paleness  of  the  surface,  how- 
ever, is  probably  in  large  part,  or  exclusively,  due  to  the 
vaso-motor  centre  being  aifected  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
cause  the  contraction  of  the  small  arteries  of  the  skin. 
That  the  skin  is  much  affected  under  the  sense  of  great 
fear,  we  see  in  the  marvellous  and  inexplicable  manner  in 
which  perspiration  immediately  exudes  from  it.  This 
exudation  is  all  the  more  remarkable,  as  the  surface 
is  then  cold, and  hence  the  term  a  cold  sweat;  whereas, 
the  sudorific  glands  are  properly  excited  into  action 
when  the  surface  is  heated.  The  hairs  also  on  the 
skin  stand  erect;  and  the  superficial  muscles  shiver. 
In  connection  with  the  disturbed  action  of  the  heart, 
the  breathing  is  hurried.  The  salivary  glands  act  im- 


15  H.  Wedgwood,  Diet,  of  English  Etymology,  vol.  ii.  1862,  p.  35. 
See,  also,  Gratiolet  ('  De  la  Physionomie,'  p.  135)  on  the  sources  of 
such  words  as  '  terror,  horror,  rigidus,  frigidus,'  &c. 


CHAP.  XII.  FEAK.  291 

perfectly ;  the  mouth  becomes  dry,18  and  is  often  opened 
and  shut.  I  have  also  noticed  that  under  slight  fear 
there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  yawn.  One  of  the  best- 
marked  symptoms  is  the  trembling  of  all  the  muscles 
of  the  body ;  and  this  is  often  first  seen  in  the  lips. 
From  this  cause,  and  from  the  dryness  of  the  mouth, 
the  voice  becomes  husky  or  indistinct,  or  may  alto- 
gether fail.  "  Obstupui,  steteruntque  comaB,  et  vox 
"  faucibus  hsesit." 

Of  vague  fear  there  is  a  well-known  and  grand  de- 
scription in  Job : — "  In  thoughts  from  the  visions  of  the 
"  night,  when  deep  sleep  falleth  on  men,  fear  came  upon 
"  me,  and  trembling,  which  made  all  my  bones  to  shake. 
"  Then  a  spirit  passed  before  my  face ;  the  hair  of  my 
"  flesh  stood  up.  It  stood  still,  but  I  could  not  discern 
"  the  form  thereof :  an  image  was  before  my  eyes,  there 
"  was  silence,  and  I  heard  a  voice,  saying,  Shall  mortal 
"  man  be  more  just  than  God  ?  Shall  a  man  be  more 
"  pure  than  his  Maker  ?"  (Job  iv.  13.) 

As  fear  increases  into  an  agony  of  terror,  we  behold, 
as  under  all  violent  emotions,  diversified  results.  The 
heart  beats  wildly,  or  may  fail  to  act  and  faintness 
ensue ;  there  is  a  death-like  pallor ;  the  breathing  is 
laboured ;  the  wings  of  the  nostrils  are  widely  dilated  ; 
"  there  is  a  gasping  and  convulsive  motion  of  the  lips,  a 
"  tremor  on  the  hollow  cheek,  a  gulping  and  catching  of 
"the  throat;"17  the  uncovered  and  protruding  eye- 
balls are  fixed  on  the  object  of  terror ;  or  they  may  roll 

16  Mr.  Bain  (4  The  Emotions  and  the  Will,'  1865,  p.  51)  explains  in 
the  following  manner  the  origin  of  the  custom  "  of  subjecting  criminals 
"  in  India  to  the  ordeal  of  the  morsel  of  rice.     The  accused  is  made  to 
"  take  a  mouthful  of  rice,  and  after  a  little  time  to  throw  it  out.     If 
"  the  morsel  is  quite  dry,  the  party  is  believed  to  be  guilty, — his  own 
"  evil  conscience  operating  to  paralyse  the  salivating  organs." 

17  Sir  C.    Bell,  Transactions  of  Royal    Phil.  Soo.   1822,    p.  308. 
'  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  88  and  pp.  164-169. 


292  FEAE.  CHAP.  XII. 

restlessly  from  side  to  side,  hue  ilhte  volvens  oeulos 
iotumque  pererrat.18  The  pupils  are  said  to  be  enor- 
mously dilated.  All  the  muscles  of  the  body  may 
become  rigid,  or  may  be  thrown  into  convulsive 
movements.  The  hands  are  alternately  clenched  and 
opened,  often  with  a  twitching  movement.  The  arms 
may  be  protruded,  as  if  to  avert  some  dreadful  danger, 
or  may  be  thrown  wildly  over  the  head.  The  Kev.  Mr. 
Hagenauer  has  seen  this  latter  action  in  a  terrified 
Australian.  In  other  cases  there  is  a  sudden  and  un- 
controllable tendency  to  headlong  flight ;  and  so  strong 
is  this,  that  the  boldest  soldiers  may  be  seized  with  a 
sudden  panic. 

As  fear  rises  to  an  extreme  pitch,  the  dreadful  scream 
of  terror  is  heard.  Great  beads  of  sweat  stand  on  the 
skin.  All  the  muscles  of  the  body  are  relaxed.  Utter 
prostration  soon  follows,  and  the  mental  powers  fail. 
The  intestines  are  affected.  The  sphincter  muscles 
cease  to  act,  and  no  longer  retain  the  contents  of  the 
body. 

Dr..J.  Crichton  Browne  has  given  me  so  striking  an 
account  of  intense  fear  in  an  insane  woman,  aged  thirty- 
five,  that  the  description  though  painful  ought  not  to 
be  omitted.  When  a  paroxysm  seizes  her,  she  screams 
out,  "  This  is  hell ! "  "  There  is  a  black  woman ! "  "I 
"  can't  get  out ! " — and  other  such  exclamations.  When 
thus  screaming,  her  movements  are  those  of  alternate 
tension  and  tremor.  For  one  instant  she  clenches  her 
hands,  holds  her  arms  out  before  her  in  a  stiff  semi- 
flexed  position ;  then  suddenly  bends  her  body  forwards, 
sways  rapidly  to  and  fro,  draws  her  fingers  through 
her  hair,  clutches  at  her  neck,  and  tries  to  tear  off  her 


18  See  Morcau  on  the  rolling  of  the  eyes,  in  the  edit,  of  1820  of 
Lavater,  tome  iv.  p.  263.    Also,  Gratiolet,  De  la  Phys.  p.  17. 


CHAP.  XII.  FEAR.  293 

clothes.  The  sterno-cleidomastoid  muscles  (which 
serve  to  bend  the  head  on  the  chest)  stand  out  pro- 
minently, as  if  swollen,  and  the  skin  in  front  of  them  is 
much  wrinkled.  Her  hair,  which  is  cut  short  at  the 
back  of  her  head,  and  is  smooth  when  she  is  calm,  now 
stands  on  end ;  that  in  front  being  dishevelled  by  the 
movements  of  her  hands.  The  countenance  expresses 
great  mental  agony.  The  skin  is  flushed  over  the  face 
and  neck,  down  to  the  clavicles,  and  the  veins  of  the 
forehead  and  neck  stand  out  like  thick  cords.  The 
lower  lip  drops,  and  is  somewhat  everted.  The  mouth 
is  kept  half  open,  with  the  lower  jaw  projecting.  The 
cheeks  are  hollow  and  deeply  furrowed  in  curved  lines 
running  from  the  wings  of  the  nostrils  to  the  corners  of 
the  mouth.  The  nostrils  themselves  are  raised  and  ex- 
tended. The  eyes  are  widely  opened,  and  beneath  them 
the  skin  appears  swollen ;  the  pupils  are  large.  The 
forehead  is  wrinkled  transversely  in  many  folds,  and  at 
the  inner  extremities  of  the  eyebrows  it  is  strongly  fur- 
rowed in  diverging  lines,  produced  by  the  powerful  and 
persistent  contraction  of  the  corrugators. 

Mr.  Bell  has  also  described  19  an  agony  of  terror  and 
of  despair,  which  he  witnessed  in  a  murderer,  whilst 
carried  to  the  place  of  execution  in  Turin.  "  On  each 
"  side  of  the  car  the  officiating  priests  were  seated ; 
"  and  in  the  centre  sat  the  criminal  himself.  It  was 
"  impossible  to  witness  the  condition  of  this  unhappy 
'*  wretch  without  terror;  and  yet,  as  if  impelled  by 
"  some  strange  infatuation,  it  was  equally  impossible 
"  not  to  gaze  upon  an  object  so  wild,  so  full  of  horror. 
"  He  seemed  about  thirty-five  years  of  age ;  of  large 
"  and  muscular  form ;  his  countenance  marked  by 


19  «  Observations  on  Italy,'  1825,  p.  48,  as  quoted  in  '  The  Anatomy 
of  Expression,'  p.  168. 


294  FEAR.  CHAP.  XII. 

"  strong  and  savage  features ;  half  naked,  pale  as  death, 
"  agonized  with  terror,  every  limb  strained  in  anguish, 
"  his  hands  clenched  convulsively,  the  sweat  breaking 
"  out  on  his  bent  and  contracted  brow,  he  kissed  in- 
"  cessantly  the  figure  of  our  Saviour,  painted  on  the 
"  flag  which  was  suspended  before  him ;  but  with  an 
"  agony  of  wildiiess  and  despair,  of  which  nothing  ever 
"  exhibited  on  the  stage  can  give  the  slightest  con- 
"  ception." 

I  will  add  only  one  other  case,  illustrative  of  a  man 
utterly  prostrated  by  terror.  An  atrocious  murderer  of 
two  persons  was  brought  into  a  hospital,  under  the 
mistaken  impression  that  he  had  poisoned  himself;  and 
Dr.  W.  Ogle  carefully  watched  him  the  next  morning, 
while  he  was  being  handcuffed  and  taken  away  by  the 
police.  His  pallor  was  extreme,  and  his  prostration  so 
great  that  he  was  hardly  able  to  dress  himself.  His 
skin  perspired  ;  and  his  eyelids  and  head  drooped  so 
much  that  it  was  impossible  to  catch  even  a  glimpse 
of  his  eyes.  His  lower  jaw  hung  down.  There  was  no 
contraction  of  any  facial  muscle,  and  Dr.  Ogle  is  almost 
certain  that  the  hair  did  not  stand  on  end,  for  he  ob- 
served it  narrowly,  as  it  had  been  dyed  for  the  sake  of 
concealment. 

With  respect  to  fear,  as  exhibited  by  the  various 
races  of  man,  my  informants  agree  that  the  signs  are 
the  same  as  with  Europeans.  They  are  displayed  in 
an  exaggerated  degree  with  the  Hindoos  and  natives  of 
Ceylon.  Mr.  Geach  has  seen  Malays  when  terrified 
turn  pale  and  shake;  and  Mr.  Brough  Smyth  states 
that  a  native  Australian  "  being  on  one  occasion  much 
"  frightened,  showed  a  complexion  as  nearly  approach- 
"  ing  to  what  we  call  paleness,  as  can  well  be  con- 
"  ceived  in  the  case  of  a  very  black  man."  Mr.  Dyson 
Lacy  has  seen  extreme  fear  shown  in  an  Australian, 


CHAP.  XII.  ERECTION   OF  THE   HAIR.  295 

by  a  nervous  twitching  of  the  hands,  feet,  and  lips ; 
and  by  the  perspiration  standing  on  the  skin.  Many 
savages  do  not  repress  the  signs  of  fear  so  much  as 
Europeans;  and  they  often  tremble  greatly.  With 
the  Kafir,  Gaika  says,  in  his  rather  quaint  English,  the 
shaking  "  of  the  body  is  much  experienced,  and  the  eyes 
"  are  widely  open."  With  savages,  the  sphincter  muscles 
are  often  relaxed,  just  as  may  be  observed  in  much 
frightened  dogs,  and  as  I  have  seen  with  monkeys  when 
terrified  by  being  caught. 

The  erection  of  the  hair. — Some  of  the  signs  of  fear 
deserve  a  little  further  consideration.  Poets  continual  ly 
speak  of  the  hair  standing  on  end  ;  Brutus  says  to  the 
ghost  of  Caesar,  "  that  mak'st  my  blood  cold,  and  my 
"  hair  to  stare."  And  Cardinal  Beaufort,  after  the 
murder  of  Gloucester  exclaims,  "  Comb  down  his  hair ; 
"  look,  look,  it  stands  upright."  As  I  did  not  feel 
sure  whether  writers  of  fiction  might  not  have  applied 
to  man  what  they  had  often  observed  in  animals,  I 
begged  for  information  from  Dr.  Crichton  Browne  with 
respect  to  the  insane.  He  states  in  answer  that  he  has 
repeatedly  seen  their  hair  erected  under  the  influence 
of  sudden  and  extreme  terror.  For  instance,  it  is  occa- 
sionally necessary  to  inject  morphia  under  the  skin  of 
an  insane  woman,  who  dreads  the  operation  extremely, 
though  it  causes  very  little  pain  ;  for  she  believes  that 
poison  is  being  introduced  into  her  system,  and  that  her 
bones  will  be  softened,  and  her  flesh  turned  into  dust. 
She  becomes  deadly  pale ;  her  limbs  are  stiffened  by  a 
sort  of  tetanic  spasm,  and  her  hair  is  partially  erected 
on  the  front  of  the  head. 

Dr.  Browne  further  remarks  that  the  bristling  of  the 
hair  which  is  so  common  in  the  insane,  is  not  always 
associated  with  terror.  It  is  perhaps  most  frequently 


296  FEAR.  CHAP.  XII. 

seen  in  chronic  maniacs,  who  rave  incoherently  and  have 
destructive  impulses  ;  but  it  is  during  their  paroxysms 
of  violence  that  the  bristling  is  most  observable.  The 
fact  of  the  hair  becoming  erect  under  the  influence  both 
of  rage  and  fear  agrees  perfectly  with  what  we  have  seen 
in  the  lower  animals.  Dr.  Browne  adduces  several  cases 
in  evidence.  Thus  with  a  man  now  in  the  Asylum,  before 
the  recurrence  of  each  maniacal  paroxysm,  "  the  hair 
"  rises  up  from  his  forehead  like  the  mane  of  a  Shetland 
"  pony."  He  has  sent  me  photographs  of  two  women, 
taken  in  the  intervals  between  their  paroxysms,  and  he 
adds  with  respect  to  one  of  these  women,  "  that  the 
"  state  of  her  hair  is  a  sure  and  convenient  criterion 
"of  her  mental  condition."  I  have  had  one  of  these 
photographs  copied,  and  the  engraving  gives,  if  viewed 


Fig.  19.  From  a  photograph  of  an  insane  woman,  to  show  the  condition  of  her  hair. 

from  a  little  distance,  a  faithful  representation  of  the 
original,  with  the  exception  that  the  hair  appears 
rather  too  coarse  and  too  much  curled.  The  extraor- 
dinary condition  of  the  hair  in  the  insane  is  due,  not 


CHAP.  XII.  ERECTION  OF   THE  HAIR.  297 

only  to  its  erection,  but  to  its  dryness  and  harshness, 
consequent  on  the  subcutaneous  glands  failing  to  act. 
Dr.  Bucknill  has  said  20  that  a  lunatic  "  is  a  lunatic  to 
"  his  finger's  ends  ;  "  he  might  have  added,  and  often 
to  the  extremity  of  each  particular  hair. 

Dr.  Browne  mentions  as  an  empirical  confirmation 
of  the  relation  which  exists  in  the  insane  between  the 
state  of  their  hair  and  minds,  that  the  wife  of  a  medical 
man,  who  has  charge  of  a  lady  suffering  from  acute 
melancholia,  with  a  strong  fear  of  death,  for  herself, 
her  husband  and  children,  reported  verbally  to  him 
the  day  before  receiving  my  letter  as  follows,  "  I  think 

"  Mrs.  will  soon  improve,  for  her  hair  is  getting 

"  smooth ;  and  I  always  notice  that  our  patients  get 
"  better  whenever  their  hair  ceases  to  be  rough  and 
"  unmanageable." 

Dr.  Browne  attributes  the  persistently  rough  condi- 
tion of  the  hair  in  many  insane  patients,  in  part  to 
their  minds  being  always  somewhat  disturbed,  and  in 
part  to  the  effects  of  habit, — that  is,  to  the  hair  being 
frequently  and  strongly  erected  during  their  many 
recurrent  paroxysms.  In  patients  in  whom  the  bristling 
of  the  hair  is  extreme,  the  disease  is  generally  per- 
manent and  mortal ;  but  in  others,  in  whom  the  brist- 
ling is  moderate,  as  soon  as  they  recover  their  health 
of  mind  the  hair  recovers  its  smoothness. 

In  a  previous  chapter  we  have  seen  that  with  animals 
the  hairs  are  erected  by  the  contraction  of  minute,  un- 
striped,  and  involuntary  muscles,  which  run  to  each 
separate  follicle.  In  addition  to  this  action,  Mr.  J.  Wood 
has  clearly  ascertained  by  experiment,  as  he  informs 
me,  that  with  man  the  hairs  on  the  front  of  the 
head  which  slope  forwards,  and  those  on  the  back 


20  Quoted  by  Dr.  Maudsley,  •  Body  and  Mind/  1870,  p.  41. 


298  FEAK.  CHAT.  XII. 

which  slope  backwards,  are  raised  in  opposite  directions 
by  the  contraction  of  the  occipito-frontalis  or  scalp 
muscle.  So  that  this  muscle  seems  to  aid  in  the  erec- 
tion of  the  hairs  on  the  head  of  man,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  homologous  panniculus  carnosus  aids,  or 
takes  the  greater  part,  in  the  erection  of  the  spines  on 
the  backs  of  some  of  the  lower  animals. 

Contraction  of  the  platysma  myoides  muscle. — This 
muscle  is  spread  over  the  sides  of  the  neck,  extending 
downwards  to  a  little  beneath  the  collar-bones,  and 
upwards  to  the  lower  part  of  the  cheeks.  A  portion, 
called  the  risorius,  is  represented  in  the  woodcut  (M) 
fig.  2.  The  contraction  of  this  muscle  draws  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  cheeks 
downwards  and  backwards.  It  produces  at  the  same 
time  divergent,  longitudinal,  prominent  ridges  on  the 
sides  of  the  neck  in  the  young ;  and,  in  old  thin  per- 
sons, fine  transverse  wrinkles.  This  muscle  is  some- 
times said  not  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  will ;  but 
almost  every  one,  if  told  to  draw  the  corners  of  his 
mouth  backwards  and  downwards  with  great  force, 
brings  it  into  action.  I  have,  however,  heard  of  a  man 
who  can  voluntarily  act  on  it  only  on  one  side  of  his 
neck. 

Sir  C.  Bell 21  and  others  have  stated  that  this  muscle 
is  strongly  contracted  under  the  influence  of  fear; 
and  Duchenne  insists  so  strongly  on  its  importance  in 
the  expression  of  this  emotion,  that  he  calls  it  the 
muscle  of  fright.22'  He  admits,  however,  that  its  con- 
traction is  quite  inexpressive  unless  associated  with 
widely  open  eyes  and  mouth.  He  has  given  a  pho- 


21  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  168. 

22  Mecanisme  de  la  Phys.  Humaine,  Album,  Legende  xi. 


XIJ. 


CONTRACTION  OF  THE  PLATYSMA. 


299 


tograph  (copied  and  reduced  in  the  accompanying 
woodcut)  of  the  same  old  man  as  on  former  occa- 
sions, with  his  eyebrows  strongly  raised,  his  mouth 
opened,  and  the  platysma  contracted,  all  by  means 


Fig.  20.    Terror,  from  a  photograph  by  Dr.  Duchenne. 

of  galvanism.  The  original  photograph  was  shown  to 
twenty-four  persons,  and  they  were  separately  asked, 
without  any  explanation  being  given,  what  expression 
was  intended :  twenty  instantly  answered,  "  intense 


300  FEAR.  CHAP.  XII. 

"  fright "  or  "  horror ; "  three  said  pain,  and  one  ex- 
treme discomfort.  Dr.  Duchenne  has  given  another 
photograph  of  the  same  old  man,  with  the  platysma 
contracted,  the  eyes  and  mouth  opened,  and  the  eye- 
brows rendered  oblique,  by  means  of  galvanism.  The 
expression  thus  induced  is  very  striking  (see  Plate  VII. 
fig.  2) ;  the  obliquity  of  the  eyebrows  adding  the  appear- 
ance of  great  mental  distress.  The  original  was  shown 
to  fifteen  persons ;  twelve  answered  terror  or  horror, 
and  three  agony  or  great  suffering.  From  these  cases, 
and  from  an  examination  of .  the  other  photographs 
given  by  Dr.  Duchenne,  together  with  his  remarks 
thereon,  I  think  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  con- 
traction of  the  platysma  does  add  greatly  to  the  expres- 
sion of  fear.  Nevertheless  this  muscle  ought  hardly  to 
be  called  that  of  fright,  for  its  contraction  is  certainly 
not  a  necessary  concomitant  of  this  state  of  mind. 

A  man  may  exhibit  extreme  terror  in  the  plainest 
manner  by  death-like  pallor,  by  drops  of  perspiration  on 
his  skin,  and  by  utter  prostration,  with  all  the  muscles 
of  his  body,  including  the  platysma,  completely  re- 
laxed. Although  Dr.  Browne  has  often  seen  this  muscle 
quivering  and  contracting  in  the  insane,  he  has  not 
been  able  to  connect  its  action  with  any  emotional  con- 
dition in  them,  though  he  carefully  attended  to  patients 
suffering  from  great  fear.  Mr.  Nicol,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  observed  three  cases  in  which  this  muscle 
appeared  to  be  more  or  less  permanently  contracted 
under  the  influence  of  melancholia,  associated  with 
much  dread ;  but  in  one  of  these  cases,  various  other 
muscles  about  the  neck  and  head  were  subject  to  spas- 
modic contractions. 

Dr.  W.  Ogle  observed  for  me  in  one  of  the  London 
hospitals  about  twenty  patients,  just  before  they  were 
put  under  the  influence  of  chloroform  for  operations. 


Tab  Vll 


CHAP.  XII.    CONTRACTION  OF  THE  PLATYSMA.     301 

They  exhibited  some  trepidation,  but  no  great  terror. 
In  only  four  of  the  cases  was  the  platysma  visibly 
contracted ;  and  it  did  not  begin  to  contract  until  the 
patients  began  to  cry.  The  muscle  seemed  to  contract 
at  the  moment  of  each  deep-drawn  inspiration  ;  so  that 
it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  contraction  depended  at 
all  on  the  emotion  of  fear.  In  a  fifth  case,  the  patient, 
who  was  not  chloroformed,  was  much  terrified ;  and 
his  platysma  was  more  forcibly  and  persistently  con- 
tracted than  in  the  other  cases.  But  even  here  there 
is  room  for  doubt,  for  the  muscle  which  appeared  to 
be  unusually  developed,  was  seen  by  Dr.  Ogle  to  con- 
tract as  the  man  moved  his  head  from  the  pillow,  after 
the  operation  was  over. 

As  I  felt  much  perplexed  why,  in  any  case,  a  super- 
ficial muscle  on  the  neck  should  be  especially  affected 
by  fear,  I  applied  to  my  many  obliging  correspondents 
for  information  about  the  contraction  of  this  muscle 
under  other  circumstances.  It  would  be  superfluous 
to  give  all  the  answers  which  I  have  received.  They 
show  that  this  muscle  acts,  often  in  a  variable  manner 
and  degree,  under  many  different  conditions.  It  is 
violently  contracted  in  hydrophobia,  and  in  a  somewhat 
less  degree  in  lockjaw ;  sometimes  in  a  marked  manner 
during  the  insensibility  from  chloroform.  Dr.  W.  Ogle 
observed  two  male  patients,  suffering  from  such  diffi- 
culty in  breathing,  that  the  trachea  had  to  be  opened, 
and  in  both  the  platysma  was  strongly  contracted. 
One  of  these  men  overheard  the  conversation  of  the 
surgeons  surrounding  him,  and  when  he  was  able  to 
speak,  declared  that  he  had  not  been  frightened.  In 
some  other  cases  of  extreme  difficulty  of  respiration, 
though  not  requiring  tracheotomy,  observed  by  Drs. 
Ogle  and  Langstaff,  the  platysma  was  not  con- 
tracted. 


802  FEAR.  CHAP.  XII. 

Mr.  J.  Wood,  who  has  studied  with  such  care  the 
muscles  of  the  human  body,  as  shown  by  his  various 
publications,  ha?  often  seen  the  platysma  contracted  in 
vomiting,  nausea,  and  disgust;  also  in  children  and 
adults  uruier  the  influence  of  rage, — for  instance,  in 
Irishwomen,  quarrelling  and  brawling  together  with 
angrv  gesticulations.  This  may  possibly  have  been 
due  to  their  high  and  angry  tones;  for  I  know  a 
lady,  an  excellent  musician,  who,  in  singing  certain 
high  notes,  always  contracts  her  platysma.  So  does  a 
young  man,  as  I  have  observed,  in  sounding  certain 
notes  on  the  flute.  Mr.  J.  Wood  informs  me  that  he 
has  found  the  platysma  best  developed  in  persons  with 
thick  necks  and  broad  shoulders ;  and  that  in  families 
inheriting  these  peculiarities,  its  development  is  usually 
associated  with  much  voluntary  power  over  the  homo- 
logous occipito-frontalis  muscle,  by  which  the  scalp  can 
be  moved. 

None  of  the  foregoing  cases  appear  to  throw  any  light 
on  the  contraction  of  the  platysma  from  fear ;  but  it 
is  different,  I  think,  with  the  following  cases.  The 
gentleman  before  referred  to,  who  can  voluntarily  act 
on  this  muscle  only  on  one  side  of  his  neck,  is  positive 
that  it  contracts  on  both  sides  whenever  he  is  startled. 
Evidence  has  already  been  given  showing  that  this 
muscle  sometimes  contracts,  perhaps  for  the  sake  of 
opening  the  mouth  widely,  when  the  breathing  is  ren- 
dered difficult  by  disease,  and  during  the  deep  inspira- 
tions of  crying-fits  before  an  operation.  Now,  when- 
ever a  person  starts  at  any  sudden  sight  or  sound,  he 
instantaneously  draws  a  deep  breath;  and  thus  the 
contraction  of  the  platysma  may  possibly  have  become 
associated  with  the  sense  of  fear.  But  there  is,  I 
believe,  a  more  efficient  relation.  The  first  sensation 
of  fear,  or  the  imagination  of  something  dreadful,  com- 


CHAP.  XII.  DILATATION  OF   THE  PUPILS.  303 

raonly  excites  a  shudder.  I  have  caught  myself  giving 
a  little  involuntary  shudder  at  a  painful  thought,  and 
I  distinctly  perceived  that  my  platysma  contracted ;  so 
it  does  if  I  simulate  a  shudder.  I  have  asked  others 
to  act  in  this  manner ;  and  in  some  the  muscle  con- 
tracted, but  not  in  others.  One  of  my  sons,  whilst 
getting  out  of  bed,  shuddered  from  the  cold,  and,  as  he 
happened  to  have  his  hand  on  his  neck,  he  plainly 
felt  that  this  muscle  strongly  contracted.  He  then 
voluntarily  shuddered,  as  he  had  done  on  former 
occasions,  but  the  platysma  was  not  then  affected. 
Mr.  J.  Wood  has  also  several  times  observed  this 
muscle  contracting  in  patients,  when  stripped  for  exa- 
mination, and  who  were  not  frightened,  but  shivered 
slightly  from  the  cold.  Unfortunately  I  have  not  been 
able  to  ascertain  whether,  when  the  whole  body  shakes, 
as  in  the  cold  stage  of  an  ague  fit,  the  platysma  con- 
tracts. But  as  it  certainly  often  contracts  during  a 
shudder ;  and  as  a  shudder  or  shiver  often  accompanies 
the  first  sensation  of  fear,  we  have,  I  think,  a  clue  to  its 
action  in  this  latter  case.23  Its  contraction,  however,  is 
not  an  invariable  concomitant  of  fear ;  for  it  probably 
never  acts  under  the  influence  of  extreme,  prostrating 
terror. 

Dilatation  of  the  Pupils. — Gratiolet  repeatedly  insists24 
that  the  pupils  are  enormously  dilated  whenever  terror 
is  felt.  I  have  no  reason  to  doubt  the  accuracy  of 
this  statement,  but  have  failed  to  obtain  confirmatory 


23  Duchenne  takes,  in  fact,  this  view  (ibid.  p.  45),  as  he  attributes 
the  contraction  of  the  platysma  to  the  shivering  of  fear  (frisson  de  la 
peur) ;  but  he  elsewhere  compares  the  action  with  that  which  causes 
the  hair  of  frightened  quadrupeds  to  stand  erect ;  and  this  can  hardly 
be  considered  as  quite  coirect. 

24  '  De  la  Physionomie,'  pp.  51.  256,  346. 


304  HOEKOR.  CHAP.  XII. 

evidence,  excepting  in  the  one  instance  before  given  of 
an  insane  woman  suffering  from  great  fear.  When 
writers  of  fiction  speak  of  the  eyes  being  widely  dilated, 
I  presume  that  they  refer  to  the  eyelids.  Munro's  state- 
ment,25 that  with  parrots  the  iris  is  affected  by  the  pas- 
sions, independently  of  the  amount  of  light,  seems  to 
bear  on  this  question ;  but  Professor  Donders  informs  me, 
that  he  has  often  seen  movements  in  the  pupils  of  these 
birds  which  he  thinks  may  be  related  to  their  power  of 
accommodation  to  distance,  in  nearly  the  same  manner 
as  our  own  pupils  contract  when  our  eyes  converge  for 
near  vision.  Gratiolet  remarks  that  the  dilated  pupils 
appear  as  if  they  were  gazing  into  profound  darkness. 
No  doubt  the  fears  of  man  have  often  been  excited  in  the 
dark ;  but  hardly  so  often  or  so  exclusively,  as  to  account 
for  a  fixed  and  associated  habit  having  thus  arisen.  It 
seems  more  probable,  assuming  that  Gratiolet's  state- 
ment is  correct,  that  the  brain  is  directly  affected  by 
the  powerful  emotion  of  fear  and  reacts  on  the  pupils ; 
but  Professor  Donders  informs  me  that  this  is  an  ex- 
tremely complicated  subject.  I  may  add,  as  possibly 
throwing  light  on  the  subject,  that  Dr.  Fyffe,  of  Netley 
Hospital,  has  observed  in  two  patients  that  the  pupils 
were  distinctly  dilated  during  the  cold  stage  of  an  ague 
fit.  Professor  Donders  has  also  often  seen  dilatation 
of  the  pupils  in  incipient  faintness. 

Horror. — The  state  of  mind  expressed  by  this  term 
implies  terror,  and  is  in  some  cases  almost  synony- 
mous with  it.  Many  a  man  must  have  felt,  before 
the  blessed  discovery  of  chloroform,  great  horror  at 
the  thought  of  an  impending  surgical  operation.  He 
who  dreads,  as  well  as  hates  a  man,  will  feel,  as  Milton 


As  quoted  in  White's  '  Gradation  in  Man,'  p.  57. 


CHAP.  XII.  HORROR.  305 

uses  the  word,  a  horror  of  him.  We  feel  horror  if  we 
see  any  one,  for  instance  a  child,  exposed  to  some  instant 
and  crushing  danger.  Almost  every  one  would  experi- 
ence the  same  feeling  in  the  highest  degree  in  witness- 
ing a  man  being  tortured  or  going  to  be  tortured.  In 
these  cases  there  is  no  danger  to  ourselves ;  but  from 
the  power  of  the  imagination  and  of  sympathy  we  put 
ourselves  in  the  position  of  the  sufferer,  and  feel  some- 
thing akin  to  fear. 

Sir  C.  Bell  remarks,26  that  "  horror  is  full  of  energy  ; 
"  the  body  is  in  the  utmost  tension,  not  unnerved  by 
"  fear."  It  is,  therefore,  probable  that  horror  would 
generally  be  accompanied  by  the  strong  contraction  of 
the  brows ;  but  as  fear  is  one  of  the  elements,  the  eyes 
and  mouth  would  be  opened,  and  the  eyebrows  would 
be  raised,  as  far  as  the  antagonistic  action  of  the 
corrugators  permitted  this  movement.  Duchenne  has 
given  a  photograph 27  (fig.  21)  of  the  same  old  man  as 
before,  with  his  eyes  somewhat  staring,  the  eyebrows 
partially  raised,  and  at  the  same  time  strongly  con- 
tracted, the  mouth  opened,  and  the  platysma  in  action, 
all  effected  by  the  means  of  galvanism.  He  considers 
that  the  expression  thus  produced  shows  extreme  terror 
with  horrible  pain  or  torture.  A  tortured  man,  as  long 
as  his  sufferings  allowed  him  to  feel  any  dread  for  the 
future,  would  probably  exhibit  horror  in  an  extreme 
degree.  I  have  shown  the  original  of  this  photograph 
to  twenty-three  persons  of  both  sexes  and  various  ages  ; 
and  thirteen  immediately  answered  horror,  great  pain, 
torture,  or  agony;  three  answered  extreme  fright;  so 
that  sixteen  answered  nearly  in  accordance  with  Du- 
chenne's  belief.  Six,  however,  said  anger,  guided  no 


28  *  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  169. 

27  « Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie,'  Album,  pi.  G5,  pp.  44,  45. 
14 


800 


HOKKOR. 


CHAP. 


doubt,  by  the  strongly  contracted  brows,  and  overlooking 
•the  peculiarly  opened  mouth.  One  said  disgust.  On 
the  whole,  the  evidence  indicates  that  we  have  here  a 


Fig  21.    Horror  and  Agony,  copied  from  a  photograph  by  Dr.  Duchenne. 


fairly  good  representation  of  horror  and  agony.  The 
photograph  before  referred  to  (PL  VII.  fig.  2)  likewise 
exhibits  horror ;  but  in  this  the  oblique  eyebrows  in- 
dicate groat  mental  distress  in  place  of  energy. 


CHAP.  XII.  CONCLUSION.  307 

Horror  is  generally  accompanied  by  various  gestures, 
which  differ  in  different  individuals.  Judging  from 
pictures,  the  whole  body  is  often  turned  away  or  shrinks ; 
or  the  arms  are  violently  protruded  as  if  to  push 
away  some  dreadful  object.  The  most  frequent  gesture, 
as  far  as  can  be  inferred  from  the  acting  of  persons 
who  endeavour  to  express  a  vividly-imagined  scene  of 
horror,  is  the  raising  of  both  shoulders,  with  the  bent 
arms  pressed  closely  against  the  sides  or  chest.  These 
movements  are  nearly  the  same  with  those  commonly 
made  when  we  feel  very  cold ;  and  they  are  generally 
accompanied  by  a  shudder,,  as  well  as  by  a  deep  expira- 
tion or  inspiration,  according  as  the  chest  happens  at 
the  time  to  be  expanded  or  contracted.  The  sounds 
thus  made  are  expressed  by  words  like  uh  or  ugli™ 
It  is  not,  however,  obvious  why,  when  we  feel  cold  or 
express  a  sense  of  horror,  we  press  our  bent  arms 
against  our  bodies,  raise  our  shoulders,  and  shudder. 

Conclusion. — I  have  now  endeavoured  to  describe  the 
diversified  expressions  of  fear,  in  its  gradations  from 
mere  attention  to  a  start  of  surprise,  into  extreme 
terror  and  horror.  Some  of  the  signs  may  be  accounted 
for  through  the  principles  of  habit,  association,  and 
inheritance, — such  as  the  wide  opening  of  the  mouth 
and  eyes,  with  upraised  eyebrows,  so  as  to  see  as 
quickly  as  possible  all  around  us,  and  to  hear  dis- 
tinctly whatever  sound  may  reach  our  ears.  For  we 
have  thus  habitually  prepared  ourselves  to  discover 
and  encounter  any  danger.  Some  of  the  other  signs 
of  fear  may  likewise  be  accounted  for,  at  least  in 

28  See  remarks  to  this  effect  by  Mr.  Wedgwood,  in  the  Introduction 
to  his  '  Dictionary  of  English  Etymology,'  2nd  edit.  1872,  p.  xxxvii. 
lie  shows  by  intermediate  forms  that  the  sounds  here  referred  to  have 
piobaMy  i;ivc'n  rise-  to  many  words,  such  as  ugly  huge,  &c. 


308  FEAR  AND  HORROR.  CHAP.  XII. 

part,  through  these  same  principles.  Men,  during 
numberless  generations,  have  endeavoured  to  escape 
from  their  enemies  or  danger  by  headlong  flight,  or 
by  violently  struggling  with  them;  and  such  great 
exertions  will  have  caused  the  heart  to  beat  rapidly,  the 
breathing  to  be  hurried,  the  chest  to  heave,  and  the 
nostrils  to  be  dilated.  As  these  exertions  have  often 
been  prolonged  to  the  last  extremity,  the  final  result 
will  have  been  utter  prostration,  pallor,  perspiration, 
trembling  of  all  the  muscles,  or  their  complete  relaxa- 
tion. And  now,  whenever  the  emotion  of  fear  is 
strongly  felt,  though  it  may  not  lead  to  any  exertion, 
the  same  results  tend  to  reappear,  through  the  force  of 
inheritance  and  association. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  probable  that  many  or  most  of  the 
above  symptoms  of  terror,  such  as  the  beating  of  the  heart, 
the  trembling  of  the  muscles,  cold  perspiration,  &c.,  are 
in  large  part  directly  due  to  the  disturbed  or  interrupted 
transmission  of  nerve-force  from  the  cerebro-spinal 
system  to  various  parts  of  the  body,  owing  to  the  mind 
being  so  powerfully  affected.  We  may  confidently  look 
to  this  cause,  independently  of  habit  and  association,  in 
such  cases  as  the  modified  secretions  of  the  intestinal 
canal,  and  the  failure  of  certain  glands  to  act.  With 
respect  to  the  involuntary  bristling  of  the  hair,  we 
have  good  reason  to  believe  that  in  the  case  of  animals 
this  action,  however  it  may  have  originated,  serves, 
together  with  certain  voluntary  movements,  to  make 
them  appear  terrible  to  their  enemies ;  and  as  the  same 
involuntary  and  voluntary  actions  are  performed  by 
animals  nearly  related  to  man,  we  are  led  to  believe 
that  man  has  retained  through  inheritance  a  relic  of 
Item,  now  become  useless.  It  is  certainly  a  remarkable 
fa^t,  that  the  minute  unstriped  muscles,  by  which  the 
h&irs  thinly  scattered  over  man's  almost  naked  body 


JHAP.  XII.  CONCLUSION.  •  309 

are  erected,  should  have  been  preserved  to  the  present 
day;  and  that  they  should  still  contract  under  the 
same  emotions,  namely,  terror  and  rage,  which  cause 
the  hairs  to  stand  on  end  in  the  lower  members  of  the 
Order  to  which  man  belongs. 


310  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 


CHAPTEE    XIII. 

SELF-ATTEXTION  —  SHAME  —  SHYNESS  —  MODESTY  :  BLUSHING. 

Nature  of  a  blush  —  Inheritance  —  The  parts  of  the  body  most 
affected — Blushing  in  the  various  races  of  man  —  Accompanying 
gestures  —  Confusion  of  mind  —  Causes  of  blushing  —  Self- 
attention,  the  fundamental  element  —  Shyness  —  Shame,  from 
broken  moral  laws  and  conventional  rules  —  Modesty  —  Theory 
of  blushing  —  Kecapitulation. 

BLUSHING  is  the  most  peculiar  and  the  most  human  of 
all  expressions.  Monkeys  redden  from  passion,  but  it 
would  require  an  overwhelming  amount  of  evidence  to 
make  us  believe  that  any  animal  could  blush.  The  red- 
dening of  the  face  from  a  blush  is  due  to  the  relaxation 
of  the  muscular  coats  of  the  small  arteries,  by  which 
the  capillaries  become  filled  with  blood  ;  and  this  de- 
pends on  the  proper  vaso-motor  centre  being  affected. 
No  doubt  if  there  be  at  the  same  time  much  mental  agi- 
tation, the  general  circulation  will  be  affected ;  but  it  is 
not  due  to  the  action  of  the  heart  that  the  network  of 
minute  vessels  covering  the  face  becomes  under  a 
sense  of  shame  gorged  with  blood.  We  can  cause 
laughing  by  tickling  the  skin,  weeping  or  frowning 
by  a  blow,  trembling  from  the  fear  of  pain,  and  so 
forth;  but  we  cannot  cause  a  blush,  as  Dr.  Burgess 
remarks,1  by  any  physical  means, — that  is  by  any 
action  on  the  body.  It  is  the  mind  which  must  be 
affected.  Blushing  is  not  only  involuntary;  but  the 

1  '  The  Physiology  or  Mechanism  of  Blushing,'  1839,  p.  156.     I 
rihall  havo  occasion  often  to  quote  this  work  in  the  present  chapter. 


CHAP.  XII J. 


BLUSHING. 


311 


wish  to  restrain  it,  by  leading  to  self-attention  actual!) 
increases  the  tendency. 

The  young  blush  much  more  freely  than  the  old, 
but  not  during  infancy,2  which  is  remarkable,  as  we 
know  that  infants  at  a  very  early  age  redden  from 
passion.  I  have  received  authentic  accounts  of  two 
little  girls  blushing  at  the  ages  of  between  two  and 
three  years ;  and  of  another  sensitive  child,  a  year 
older,  blushing,  when  reproved  for  a  fault.  Many 
children,  at  a  somewhat  more  advanced  age  blush  in  a 
strongly  marked  manner.  It  appears  that  the  mental 
powers  of  infants  are  not  as  yet  sufficiently  developed 
to  allow  of  their  blushing.  Hence,  also,  it  is  that  idiots 
rarely  blush.  Dr.  Crichton  Browne  observed  for  me 
those  under  his  care,  but  never  saw  a  genuine  blush, 
though  he  has  seen  their  faces  flush,  apparently  from 
joy,  when  food  was  placed  before  them,  and  from 
anger.  Nevertheless  some,  if  not  utterly  degraded,  are 
capable  of  blushing.  A  microcephalous  idiot,  for  in- 
stance, thirteen  years  old,  whose  eyes  brightened  a 
little  when  he  was  pleased  or  amused,  has  been  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  Behn,3  as  blushing  and  turning  to  one 
side,  when  undressed  for  medical  examination. 

Women  blush  much  more  than  men.  It  is  rare  to 
see  an  old  man,  but  not  nearly  so  rare  to  see  an  old 
woman  blushing.  The  blind  do  not  escape.  Laura 
Bridgman,  born  in  this  condition,  as  well  as  completely 
deaf,  blushes.4  The  Eev.  E.  H.  Blair,  Principal  of  the 
Worcester  College,  informs  ine  that  three  children 


2  Dr.  Burgess,  ibid.  p.  56.    At  p.  33  he  also  remaiks  on  women 
blushing  more  freely  than  men,  as  stated  below. 

3  Quoted  by  Vogt,  *  Memoire  sur  les  Microcephales,'  1867,  p.  20.    Dr. 
Burgess  (ibid.  p.  5G)  doubts  whether  idiots  ever  blush. 

4  Lieber  'On  the  Vocal  Sounds,'  &c.;  Smithsonian  Contributions, 
1851,  vol.  ii.  p.  6. 


BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIIL 

born  blind,  out  of  seven  or  eight  then  in  the  Asylum, 
are  great  blushers.  The  blind  are  not  at  first  conscious 
that  they  are  observed,  and  it  is  a  most  important 
part  of  their  education,  as  Mr.  Blair  informs  me,  to 
impress  this  knowledge  on  their  minds ;  and  the  im- 
pression thus  gained  would  greatly  strengthen  the  ten- 
dency to  blush,  by  increasing  the  habit  of  self-attention. 

The  tendency  to  blush  is  inherited.  Dr.  Burgess 
gives  the  case 5  of  a  family  consisting  of  a  father, 
mother,  and  ten  children,  all  of  whom,  without  excep- 
tion, were  prone  to  blush  to  a  most  painful  degree. 
The  children  were  grown  up ;  "  and  some  of  them  were 
"  sent  to  travel  in  order  to  wear  away  this  diseased 
"  sensibility,  but  nothing  was  of  the  slightest  avail." 
Even  peculiarities  in  blushing  seem  to  be  inherited. 
Sir  James  Paget,  whilst  examining  the  spine  of  a  girl, 
was  struck  at  her  singular  manner  of  blushing;  a  big 
splash  of  red  appeared  first  on  one  cheek,  and  then 
other  splashes,  variously  scattered  over  the  face  and 
neck.  He  subsequently  asked  the  mother  whether 
her  daughter  always  blushed  in  this  peculiar  manner ; 
and  was  answered,  «  Yes,  she  takes  after  me."  Sir  J. 
Paget  then  perceived  that  by  asking  this  question  he 
had  caused  the  mother  to  blush ;  and  she  exhibited 
the  same  peculiarity  as  her  daughter. 

In  most  cases  the  face,  ears  and  neck  are  the  sole 
parts  which  redden ;  but  many  persons,  whilst  blushing 
intensely,  feel  that  their  whole  bodies  grow  hot  and 
tingle ;  and  this  shows  that  the  entire  surface  must  be 
in  some  manner  affected.  Blushes  are  said  sometimes 
to  commence  on  the  forehead,  but  more  commonly  on 
the  cheeks,  afterwards  spreading  to  the  ears  and  neck.6 
In  two  Albinos  examined  by  Dr.  Burgess,  the  blushes 

6  Ibid.  p.  182.     8  Moreau,  in  edit,  of  1820  of  Lavater,  vol.  iv.  p.  303. 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  313 

commenced  by  a  small  circumscribed  spot  on  the  cheeks, 
over  the  parotidean  plexus  of  nerves,  and  then  increased 
into  a  circle ;  between  this  blushing  circle  and  the 
blush  on  the  neck  there  was  an  evident  line  of  demar- 
cation ;  although  both  arose  simultaneously.  The 
retina,  which  is  naturally  red  in  the  Albino,  invariably 
increased  at  the  same  time  in  redness.7  Every  one 
must  have  noticed  how  easily  after  one  blush  fresh 
blushes  chase  each  other  over  the  face.  Blushing  is 
preceded  by  a  peculiar  sensation  in  the  skin.  According 
to  Dr.  Burgess  the  reddening  of  the  skin  is  generally 
succeeded  by  a  slight  pallor,  which  shows  that  the  capil- 
lary vessels  contract  after  dilating.  In  some  rare  cases 
paleness  instead  of  redness  is  caused  under  conditions 
which  would  naturally  induce  a  blush.  For  instance,  a 
young  lady  told  me  that  in  a  large  and  crowded  party 
she  caught  her  hair  so  firmly  on  the  button  of  a  passing 
servant,  that  it  took  some  time  before  she  could  be 
extricated ;  from  her  sensations  she  imagined  that  she 
had  blushed  crimson ;  but  was  assured  by  a  friend  that 
she  had  turned  extremely  pale. 

I  was  desirous  to  learn  how  far  down  the  body 
blushes  extend ;  and  Sir  J.  Paget,  who  necessarily  has 
frequent  opportunities  for  observation,  has  kindly  at- 
tended to  this  point  for  me  during  two  or  three  years. 
He  finds  that  with  women  who  blush  intensely  on  the 
face,  ears,  and  nape  of  neck,  the  blush  does  not  com- 
monly extend  any  lower  down  the  body.  It  is  rare  to  see 
it  as  low  down  as  the  collar-bones  and  shoulder-blades ; 
and  he  has  never  himself  seen  a  single  instance  in  which 
it  extended  below  the  upper  part  of  the  chest.  He  has 
also  noticed  that  blushes  sometimes  die  away  down- 
wards, not  gradually  and  insensibly,  but  by  irregular 


Burgess,  ibid  p.  38,  on  paleness  after  blushing,  p.  177 


314  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 

ruddy  blotches.  Dr.  Langstaff  has  likewise  observed 
for  me  several  women  whose  bodies  did  not  in  the  least 
redden  while  their  faces  were  crimsoned  with  blushes. 
With  the  insane,  some  of  whom  appear  to  be  particularly 
liable  to  blushing,  Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne  has  several 
times  seen  the  blush  extend  as  far  down  as  the  collar- 
bones, and  in  two  instances  to  the  breasts.  He  gives 
me  the  case  of  a  married  woman,  aged  twenty-seven, 
who  suffered  from  epilepsy.  On  the  morning  after  her 
arrival  in  the  Asylum,  Dr.  Browne,  together  with  his 
assistants,  visited  her  whilst  she  was  in  bed.  The  mo- 
ment that  he  approached,  she  blushed  deeply  over  her 
cheeks  and  temples ;  and  the  blush  spread  quickly  to 
her  ears.  She  was  much  agitated  and  tremulous.  He 
unfastened  the  collar  of  her  chemise  in  order  to  ex- 
amine the  state  of  her  lungs;  and  then  a  brilliant 
blush  rushed  over  her  chest,  in  an  arched  line  over  the 
upper  third  of  each  breast,  and  extended  downwards 
between  the  breasts  nearly  to  the  ensiform  cartilage  of 
the  sternum.  This  case  is  interesting,  as  the  blush  did 
not  thus  extend  downwards  until  it  became  intense  by 
her  attention  being  drawn  to  this  part  of  her  person. 
As  the  examination  proceeded  she  became  composed, 
and  the  blush  disappeared ;  but  on  several  subsequent 
occasions  the  same  phenomena  were  observed. 

The  foregoing  facts  show  that,  as  a  general  rule, 
with  English  women,  blushing  does  not  extend  beneath 
the  neck  and  upper  part  of  the  chest.  Nevertheless  Sir 
J.  Paget  informs  me  that  he  has  lately  heard  of  a  case, 
on  which  he  can  fully  rely,  in  which  a  little  girl,  shocked 
by  what  she  imagined  to  be  an  act  of  indelicacy,  blushed 
all  over  her  abdomen  and  the  upper  parts  of  her  legs. 
Moreau  also 8  relates,  on  the  authority  of  a  celebrated 

8  See  Lavater,  edit,  of  1820,  vol.  iv.  p.  303. 


CIJAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  315 

painter,  that  the  chest,  shoulders,  arms,  and  whole  body 
of  a  girl,  who  unwillingly  consented  to  serve  as  a  model, 
reddened  when  she  was  first  divested  of  her  clothes. 

It  is  a  rather  curious  question  why,  in  most  cases 
the  face,  ears,  and  neck  alone  redden,  inasmuch  as  the 
whole  surface  of  the  body  often  tingles  and  grows  hot. 
This  seems  to  depend,  chiefly,  on  the  face  and  adjoining 
parts  of  the  skin  having  been  habitually  exposed  to  the 
air,  light,  and  alternations  of  temperature,  by  which 
the  small  arteries  not  only  have  acquired  the  habit  of 
readily  dilating  and  contracting,  but  appear  to  have 
become  unusually  developed  in  comparison  with  other 
parts  of  the  surface.9  It  is  probably  owing  to  this 
same  cause,  as  M.  Moreau  and  Dr.  Burgess  have 
remarked,  that  the  face  is  so  liable  to  redden  under 
various  circumstances,  such  as  a  fever-fit,  ordinary 
heat,  violent  exertion,  anger,  a  slight  blow,  &c. ;  and  on 
the  other  hand  that  it  is  liable  to  grow  pale  from  cold 
and  fear,  and  to  be  discoloured  during  pregnancy.  The 
face  is  also  particularly  liable  to  be  affected  by  cuta- 
neous complaints,  by  small-pox,  erysipelas,  &c.  This 
view  is  likewise  supported  by  the  fact  that  the  men  of 
certain  races,  who  habitually  go  nearly  naked,  often 
blush  over  their  arms  and  chests  and  even  down  to 
their  waists.  A  lady,  who  is  a  great  blusher,  informs 
Dr.  Crichton  Browne,  that  when  she  feels  ashamed  or 
is  agitated,  she  blushes  over  her  face,  neck,  wrists, 
and  hands, — that  is,  over  all  the  exposed  portions  of 
her  skin.  Nevertheless  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
the  habitual  exposure  of  the  skin  of  the  face  and 
neck,  and  its  consequent  power  of  reaction  under 
stimulants  of  all  kinds,  is  by  itself  sufficient  to  account 


9  Burgess,  ibid.  pp.  114,  122.     Moreau  in  Lavater,  ibid.  vol.  iv. 
p.  293. 


316  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 

for  the  much  greater  tendency  in  English  women  of 
these  parts  than  of  others  to  blush ;  for  the  hands  are 
well  supplied  with  nerves  and  small  vessels,  and  have 
been  as  much  exposed  to  the  air  as  the  face  or  neck, 
and  yet  the  hands  rarely  blush.  We  shall  presently 
see  that  the  attention  of  the  mind  having  been  directed 
much  more  frequently  and  earnestly  to  the  face  than 
to  any  other  part  of  the  body,  probably  affords  a  suffi- 
cient explanation. 

Blushing  in  the  various  races  of  man. — The  small 
vessels  of  the  face  become  filled  with  blood,  from  the 
emotion  of  shame,  in  almost  all  the  races  of  man, 
though  in  the  very  dark  races  no  distinct  change  of 
colour  can  be  perceived.  Blushing  is  evident  in  all 
the  Aryan  nations  of  Europe,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
with  those  of  India.  But  Mr.  Erskine  has  never 
noticed  that  the  necks  of  the  Hindoos  are  decidedly 
affected.  With  the  Lepchas  of  Sikhim,  Mr.  Scott  has 
often  observed  a  faint  blush  on  the  cheeks,  base  of  the 
ears,  and  sides  of  the  neck,  accompanied  by  sunken 
eyes  and  lowered  head.  This  has  occurred  when  he 
has  detected  them  in  a  falsehood,  or  has  accused  them 
of  ingratitude.  The  pale,  sallow  complexions  of  these 
men  render  a  blush  much  more  conspicuous  than  in 
most  of  the  other  natives  of  India.  With  the  latter, 
shame,  or  it  may  be  in  part  fear,  is  expressed,  according 
to  Mr.  Scott,  much  more  plainly  by  the  head  being 
averted  or  bent  down,  with  the  eyes  wavering  or  turned 
askant,  than  by  any  change  of  colour  in  the  skin. 

The  Semitic  races  blush  freely,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  from  their  general  similitude  to  the  Aryans. 
Thus  with  the  Jews,  it  is  said  in  the  Book  of  Jeremiah 
(chap.  vi.  15),  "Nay,  they  were  not  at  all  ashamed, 
"  neither  could  they  blush."  Mrs.  Asa  Gray  saw  an 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  317 

Arab  managing  his  boat  clumsily  on  the  Nile,  and 
when  laughed  at  by  his  companions,  "he  blushed 
"  quite  to  the  back  of  his  neck."  Lady  Duff  Gordon 
remarks  that  a  young  Arab  blushed  on  coming  into 
her  presence.10 

Mr.  Swinhoe  has  seen  the  Chinese  blushing,  but  he 
thinks  it  is  rare;  yet  they  have  the  expression  "to 
"  redden  with  shame."  Mr.  Geach  informs  me  that  the 
Chinese  settled  in  Malacca  and  the  native  Malays  of 
the  interior  both  blush.  Some  of  these  people  go  nearly 
naked,  and  he  particularly  attended  to  the  downward 
extension  of  the  blush.  Omitting  the  cases  in  which 
the  face  alone  was  seen  to  blush,  Mr.  Geach  observed 
that  the  face,  arms,  and  breast  of  a  Chinaman,  aged 
24  years,  reddened  from  shame;  and  with  another 
Chinese,  when  asked  why  he  had  not  done  his  work  in 
better  style,  the  whole  body  was  similarly  affected. 
In  two  Malays  u  he  saw  the  face,  neck,  breast,  and  arms 
blushing;  and  in  a  third  Malay  (a  Bugis)  the  blush 
extended  down  to  the  waist. 

The  Polynesians  blush  freely.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Stack 
has  seen  hundreds  of  instances  with  the  New  Zea- 
landers.  The  following  case  is  worth  giving,  as  it 
relates  to  an  old  man  who  was  unusually  dark-coloured 
and  partly  tattooed.  After  having  let  his  land  to  an 
Englishman  for  a  small  yearly  rental,  a  strong  passion 
seized  him  to  buy  a  gig,  which  had  lately  become  the 
fashion  with  the  Maoris.  He  consequently  wished  to 
draw  all  the  rent  for  four  years  from  his  tenant,  and 
consulted  Mr.  Stack  whether  he  could  do  so.  The  man 


10  '  Letters  from  Egypt/  1865,  p.  66.  Lady  Gordon  is  mistaken  when 
she  says  Malays  and  Mulattoes  never  blush. 

11  Capt.  Osborn  ('  Quedah,'  p.  199),  in  speaking  of  a  Malay,  whom 
he  reproached   for  cruelty,  says  he  was  glad  to  see  that  the  man 
blushed. 


318  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 

was  old,  clumsy,  poor,  and  ragged,  and  the  idea  of  his 
driving  himself  about  in  his  carriage  for  display  amused 
Mr.  Stack  so  much  that  he  could  not  help  bursting  out 
into  a  laugh  ;  and  then  «  the  old  man  blushed  up  to  the 
"  roots  of  his  hair."  Forster  says  that  "  you  may  easily 
"  distinguish  a  spreading  blush "  on  the  cheeks  of  the 
fairest  women  in  Tahiti.12  The  natives  also  of  several 
of  the  other  archipelagoes  in  the  Pacific  have  been 
seen  to  blush. 

Mr.  Washington  Matthews  has  often  seen  a  blush  on 
the  faces  of  the  young  squaws  belonging  to  various 
wild  Indian  tribes  of  North  America.  At  the  opposite 
extremity  of  the  continent  in  Tierra  del  Fuego,  the 
natives,  according  to  Mr.  Bridges,  "  blush  much,  but 
"  chiefly  in  regard  to  women ;  but  they  certainly  blush 
"  also  at  their  own  personal  appearance."  This  latter 
statement  agrees  with  what  I  remember  of  the  Fuegian, 
Jemmy  Button,  who  blushed  when  he  was  quizzed  about 
the  care  which  he  took  in  polishing  his  shoes,  and  in 
otherwise  adorning  himself.  With  respect  to  the  Ay- 
mara  Indians  on  the  lofty  plateaus  of  Bolivia,  Mr. 
Forbes  says,13  that  from  the  colour  of  their  skins  it  is 
impossible  that  their  blushes  should  be  as  clearly 


12  J.  R.  Forster,  '  Observations  during  a  Voyage  round  the  World,' 
4to,  1778,  p.  229.     Waitz  gives  ('  Introduction  to  Anthropology,'  Eng. 
translat.  1863,  vol.  i.  p.  135)  references  for  other  islands  in  the  Pacific. 
See,  also,  Dampier  'On  the  Blushing  of  the  Tunquinese '  (vol.  ii.  p.  40)  ; 
but  I  have  not  consulted  this  work.     Waitz  quotes  Bergmauu,  that  the 
Kalmucks  do  not  blush,  but  this  may  be  doubted  after  what  we  have 
seen  with  respect  to  the  Chinese.    He  also  quotes  Both,  who  denies 
that  the  Abyssinians  are  capable  of  blushing.     Unfortunately,  Capt. 
Speedy,  who  lived  so  long  with  the  Abyssinians,  has  not  answered  my 
inquiry  on  this  head.     Lastly,  I  must  add  that  the  Rajah  Brooke  has 
never  observed  the  least  sign  of  a  blush  with  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo  ; 
on  the  contrary,  under  circumstances  which  would  excite  a  blush  in 
us,  they  assert  "  that  they  feel  the  blood  drawn  from  their  faces." 

13  Transact,  of  the  Ethnological  Soc.  1870,  vol.  ii.  p.  16. 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  319 

visible  as  in  the  white  races ;  still  under  such  circum- 
stances as  would  raise  a  blush  in  us,  "  there  can  always 
"  be  seen  the  same  expression  of  modesty  or  confusion ; 
"  and  even  in  the  dark,  a  rise  of  temperature  of  the 
"  skin  of  the  face  can  be  felt,  exactly  as  occurs  in  the 
"European."  With  the  Indians  who  inhabit  the  hot, 
equable,  and  damp  parts  of  South  America,  the  skin 
apparently  does  not  answer  to  mental  excitement  so 
readily  as  with  the  natives  of  the  northern  and  southern 
parts  of  the  continent,  who  have  long  been  exposed  to 
great  vicissitudes  of  climate ;  for  Humboldt  quotes 
without  a  protest  the  sneer  of  the  Spaniard,  "  How  can 
"those  be  trusted,  who  know  not  how  to  blush?"14 
Von  Spix  and  Martius,  in  speaking  of  the  aborigines 
of  Brazil,  assert  that  they  cannot  properly  be  said 
to  blush ;  "  it  was  only  after  long  intercourse  with  the 
"  whites,  and  after  receiving  some  education,  that  we 
"  perceived  in  the  Indians  a  change  of  colour  express- 
"  ive  of  the  emotions  of  their  minds." 15  It  is,  however, 
incredible  that  the  power  of  blushing  could  have  thus 
originated ;  but  the  habit  of  self-attention,  consequent 
on  their  education  and  new  course  of  life,  would  have 
much  increased  any  innate  tendency  to  blush. 

Several  trustworthy  observers  have  assured  me  that 
they  have  seen  on  the  faces  of  negroes  an  appearance 
resembling  a  blush,  under  circumstances  which  would 
have  excited  one  in  us,  though  their  skins  were  of  an 
ebony-black  tint.  Some  describe  it  as  blushing  brown, 
but  most  say  that  the  blackness  becomes  more  intense. 
An  increased  supply  of  blood  in  the  skin  seems  in  some 
manner  to  increase  its  blackness;  thus  certain  exan- 
thematous  diseases  cause  the  affected  places  in  the 

14  Humboldt,  *  Personal  Narrative,'  Eng.  translat.  vol.  iii.  p.  229. 

15  Quoted  by  Prichard,  Phys.  Hist,  of  Mankind,   4th  edit.  1851, 
vol.  i.  p.  271. 


320  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 

negro  to  appear  blacker,  instead  of,  as  with  us,  redder.16 
The  skin,  perhaps,  from  being  rendered  more  tense  by 
the  filling  of  the  capillaries,  would  reflect  a  somewhat 
different  tint  to  what  it  did  before.  That  the  capil- 
laries of  the  face  in  the  negro  become  filled  with  blood, 
under  the  emotion  of  shame,  we  may  feel  confident; 
because  a  perfectly  characterized  albino  negress,  de- 
scribed by  Buffon,17  showed  a  faint  tinge  of  crimson 
on  her  cheeks  when  she  exhibited  herself  naked.  Cica- 
trices of  the  skin  remain  for  a  long  time  white  in  the 
negro,  and  Dr.  Burgess,  who  had  frequent  opportu- 
nities of  observing  a  scar  of  this  kind  on  the  face  of  a 
negress,  distinctly  saw  that  it  "  invariably  became  red 
"  whenever  she  was  abruptly  spoken  to,  or  charged  with 
*  any  trivial  offence." 18  The  blush  could  be  seen  pro- 
ceeding from  the  circumference  of  the  scar  towards  the 
middle,  but  it  did  not  reach  the  centre.  Mulattoes  are 
often  great  blushers,  blush  succeeding  blush  over  their 
faces.  From  these  facts  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
negroes  blush,  although  no  redness  is  visible  on  the 
skin. 

I  am  assured  by  Gaika  and  by  Mrs.  Barber  that  the 
Kafirs  of  South  Africa  never  blush ;  but  this  may  only 
mean  that  no  change  of  colour  is  distinguishable.  Gaika 
adds  that  under  the  circumstances  which  would  make  a 
European  blush,  his  countrymen  "  look  ashamed  to 
"  keep  their  heads  up." 


16  .See,  on  this  head,  Burgess,  ibid.  p.  32.  Also  Waitz,  '  Introduc- 
tion to  Anthropology,'  Eng.  edit.  vol.  i.  p.  135.  Moreau  gives  a  detailed 
account  (:  Lavater,'  1820,  torn.  iv.  p.  302)  of  the  blushing  of  a  Mada- 
gascar negress-slave  when  forced  by  her  brutal  master  to  exhibit  her 
naked  bosom. 

»  Quoted  by  Prichard,  Phys.  Hist,  of  Mankind,  4th  edit.  1851, 
vol.  i.  p.  225. 

18  Burgess,  ibid.  p.  31.  On  mulattoes  blushing,  see  p.  33.  I  have 
received  similar  accounts  with  respect  to  mulattoes. 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  321 

It  is  asserted  by  four  of  my  informants  that  the 
Australians,  who  are  almost  as  black  as  negroes,  never 
blush.  A  fifth  answers  doubtfully,  remarking  that 
only  a  very  strong  blush  could  be  seen,  on  account  of 
the  dirty  state  of  their  skins.  Three  observers  state 
that  they  do  blush;19  Mr.  S.  Wilson  adding  that  this 
is  noticeable  only  under  a  strong  emotion,  and  when 
the  skin  is  not  too  dark  from  long  exposure  and 
want  of  cleanliness.  Mr.  Lang  answers,  "  I  have 
"noticed  that  shame  almost  always  excites  a  blush, 
'*  which  frequently  extends  as  low  as  the  neck."  Shame 
is  also  shown,  as  he  adds,  "  by  the  eyes  being  turned 
"  from  side  to  side."  As  Mr.  Lang  was  a  teacher  in 
a  native  school,  it  is  probable  that  he  chiefly  observed 
children;  and  we  know  that  they  blush  more  than 
adults.  Mr.  G.  Taplin  has  seen  half-castes  blushing, 
and  he  says  that  the  aborigines  have  a  word  expressive 
of  shame.  Mr.  Hagenauer,  who  is  one  of  those  who 
has  never  observed  the  Australians  to  blush,  says  that 
he  has  "seen  them  looking  down  to  the  ground  on 
"  account  of  shame ;"  and  the  missionary,  Mr.  Bulmer, 
remarks  that  though  "  I  have  not  been  able  to  detect 
"  anything  like  shame  in  the  adult  aborigines,  I  have 
"  noticed  that  the  eyes  of  the  children,  when  ashamed, 
"  present  a  restless,  watery  appearance,  as  if  they  did 
"  not  know  where  to  look." 

The  facts  now  given  are  sufficient  to  show  that  blush- 
ing, whether  or  not  there  is  any  change  of  colour,  is 
common  to  most,  probably  to  all,  of  the  races  of  man. 

Movements  and  gestures  which  accompany  Blushing. — 
Under  a  keen  sense  of  shame  there  is  a  strong  desire 


10  Barrington  also  pays  that  the  Australians  of  New  South  Wales 
blush,  as  quoted  by  Wuitz,  ibid.  p.  135. 


322  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 

for  concealment.20  We  turn  away  the  whole  body, 
more  especially  the  face,  which  we  endeavour  in  some 
manner  to  hide.  An  ashamed  person  can  hardly  endure 
to  meet  the  gaze  of  those  present,  so  that  he  almost 
invariably  casts  down  his  eyes  or  looks  askant.  As 
there  generally  exists  at  the  same  time  a  strong  wish  to 
avoid  the  appearance  of  shame,  a  vain  attempt  is  made 
to  look  direct  at  the  person  who  causes  this  feeling; 
and  the  antagonism  between  these  opposite  tendencies 
leads  to  various  restless  movements  in  the  eyes.  I 
have  noticed  two  ladies  who,  whilst  blushing,  to  which 
they  are  very  liable,  have  thus  acquired,  as  it  ap- 
pears, the  oddest  trick  of  incessantly  blinking  their 
eyelids  with  extraordinary  rapidity.  An  intense  blush 
is  sometimes  accompanied  by  a  slight  effusion  of 
tears;21  and  this,  I  presume,  is  due  to  the  lacrymal 
glands  partaking  of  the  increased  supply  of  blood, 
which  we  know  rushes  into  the  capillaries  of  the  adjoin- 
ing parts,  including  the  retina. 

Many  writers,  ancient  and  modern,  have  noticed  the 
foregoing  movements ;  and  it  has  already  been  shown 
that  the  aborigines  in  various  parts  of  the  world  often 
exhibit  their  shame  by  looking  downwards  or  askant, 
or  by  restless  movements  of  their  eyes.  Ezra  cries  out 
(ch.  ix.  6),  "  0,  my  God !  I  am  ashamed,  and  blush  to 
"  lift  up  my  head  to  thee,  my  God."  In  Isaiah  (ch.  1. 

20  Mr.  Wedgwood  says  (Diet,  of  English  Etymology,  vol.  iii.  1865, 
p.  155)  that  the  word  shame  "  may  well  originate  in  the  idea  of  shade 
"  or  concealment,  and  may  be  illustrated  by  the  Low  German  scheme. 
"  shade  or  shadow."     Gratiolet  (De  la  Phys.  pp.  357-362;  has  a  good 
discussion  on  the  gestures  accompanying  shame ;  but  some  of  his  re- 
marks seem  to  me  rather  fanciful.     See,  also,  Burgess  (ibid.  pp.  69, 
134)  on  the  same  subject. 

21  Burgess,  ibid.  pp.  181, 182.     Boerhaave  also  noticed  (as  quoted  by 
Gratiolet,  ibid.  p.  361)  the  tendency  to  the  secretion  of  tears  during 
intense  blushing.    Mr.  Bulmer,  as  we  have  seen,  speaks  of  the  "  watery 
eyes  "  of  the  children  of  the  Australian  aborigines  when  ashamed. 


BLUSHING. 


323 


6)  we  meet  with  the  words,  "  I  hid  not  my  face  from 
"  shame."  Seneca  remarks  (Epist.  xi.  5)  "  that  the 
"  Kornan  players  hang  down  their  heads,  fix  their  eyes 
"  on  the  ground  and  keep  them  lowered,  but  are  unable 
"  to  blush  in  acting  shame."  According  to  Macrobius, 
who  lived  in  the  fifth  century  ('Saturnalia,'  B.  vii.  c.  11), 
"  Natural  philosophers  assert  that  nature  being  moved 
"  by  shame  spreads  the  blood  before  herself  as  a  veil, 
"  as  we  see  any  one  blushing  often  puts  his  hands  before 
"  his  face."  Shakspeare  makes  Marcus  ('  Titus  An- 
dronicus,'  act  ii.  sc.  5)  say  to  his  niece,  " Ah!  now 
"  thou  turn'st  away  thy  face  for  shame."  A  lady 
informs  me  that  she  found  in  the  Lock  Hospital  a 
girl  whom  she  had  formerly  known,  and  who  had 
become  a  wretched  castaway,  and  the  poor  creature, 
when  approached,  hid  her  face  under  the  bed-clothes, 
and  could  not  be  persuaded  to  uncover  it.  We  often 
see  little  children,  when  shy  or  ashamed,  turn  away,  and 
still  standing  up,  bury  their  faces  in  their  mother's 
gown;  or  they  throw  themselves  face  downwards  on 
her  lap. 

Confusion  of  mind. — Most  persons,  whilst  blushing 
intensely,  have  their  mental  powers  confused.  This 
is  recognized  in  such  common  expressions  as  "  she 
"  was  covered  with  confusion."  Persons  in  this  con- 
dition lose  their  presence  of  mind,  and  utter  singularly 
inappropriate  remarks.  They  are  often  much  distressed, 
stammer,  and  make  awkward  movements  or  strange 
grimaces.  In  certain  cases  involuntary  twitchings  of 
some  of  the  facial  muscles  may  be  observed.  I  have 
been  informed  by  a  young  lady,  who  blushes  excessively, 
that  at  such  times  she  does  not  even  know  what  she  is 
saying.  When  it  was  suggested  to  her  that  this  might 
be  due  to  her  distress  from  the  consciousness  that  her 


324  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 

blushing  was  noticed,  she  answered  that  this  could 
not  be  the  case,  "  as  she  had  sometimes  felt  quite 
"as  stupid  when  blushing  at  a  thought  in  her  own 
"  room." 

I  will  give  an  instance  of  the  extreme  disturbance 
of  mind  to  which  some  sensitive  men  are  liable.  A 
gentleman,  on  whom  I  can  rely,  assured  me  that  he 
had  been  an  eye-witness  of  the  following  scene: — A 
small  dinner-party  was  given  in  honour  of  an  extremely 
shy  man,  who,  when  he  rose  to  return  thanks,  rehearsed 
the  speech,  which  he  had  evidently  learnt  by  heart,  in 
absolute  silence,  and  did  not  utter  a  single  word ;  but  he 
acted  as  if  he  were  speaking  with  much  emphasis.  His 
friends,  perceiving  how  the  case  stood,  loudly  applauded 
the  imaginary  bursts  of  eloquence,  whenever  his  ges- 
tures indicated  a  pause,  and  the  man  never  discovered 
that  he  had  remained  the  whole  time  completely 
silent.  On  the  contrary,  he  afterwards  remarked  to 
my  friend,  with  much  satisfaction,  that  he  thought 
he  had  succeeded  uncommonly  well. 

When  a  person  is  much  ashamed  or  very  shy,  and 
blushes  intensely,  his  heart  beats  rapidly  and  his 
breathing  is  disturbed.  This  can  hardly  fail  to  affect 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  within  the  brain,  and  per- 
haps the  mental  powers.  It  seems  however  doubtful, 
judging  from  the  still  more  powerful  influence  of  anger 
and  fear  on  the  circulation,  whether  we  can  thus  satis- 
factorily account  for  the  confused  state  of  mind  in 
persons  whilst  blushing  intensely. 

The  true  explanation  apparently  lies  in  the  intimate 
sympathy  which  exists  between  the  capillary  circula- 
tion of  the  surface  of  the  head  and  face,  and  that  of  the 
brain.  On  applying  to  Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne  for 
information,  he  has  given  me  various  facts  bearing  on 
this  subject.  When  the  sympathetic  nerve  is  divided 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  325 

on  one  side  of  the  head,  the  capillaries  on  this  side 
are  relaxed  and  become  filled  with  blood,  causing 
the  skin  to  redden  and  to  grow  hot,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  temperature  within  the  cranium  on  the 
same  side  rises.  Inflammation  of  the  membranes  of 
the  brain  leads  to  the  engorgement  of  the  face,  ears, 
and  eyes  with  blood.  The  first  stage  of  an  epileptic  fit 
appears  to  be  the  contraction  of  the  vessels  of  the  brain, 
and  the  first  outward  manifestation  is  an  extreme  pallor 
of  countenance.  Erysipelas  of  the  head  commonly  in- 
duces delirium.  Even  the  relief  given  to  a  severe 
headache  by  burning  the  skin  with  strong  lotion,, 
depends,  I  presume,  on  the  same  principle. 

Dr.  Browne  has  often  administered  to  his  patients 
the  vapour  of  the  nitrite  of  amyl,22  which  has  the  sin- 
gular property  of  causing  vivid  redness  of  the  face 
in  from  thirty  to  sixty  seconds.  This  flushing  re- 
sembles blushing  in  almost  every  detail :  it  begins  at 
several  distinct  points  on  the  face,  and  spreads  till  it 
involves  the  whole  surface  of  the  head,  neck,  and  front 
of  the  chest ;  but  has  been  observed  to  extend  only  in  one 
case  to  the  abdomen.  The  arteries  in  the  retina  become 
enlarged ;  the  eyes  glisten,  and  in  one  instance  there 
was  a  slight  effusion  of  tears.  The  patients  are  at  first 
pleasantly  stimulated,  but,  as  the  flushing  increases,  they 
become  confused  and  bewildered.  One  woman  to  whom 
the  vapour  had  often  been  administered  asserted  that, 
as  soon  as  she  grew  hot,  she  grew  muddled.  With 
persons  just  commencing  to  blush  it  appears,  judging 
from  their  bright  eyes  and  lively  behaviour,  that  their 
mental  powers  are  somewhat  stimulated.  It  is  only 
when  the  blushing  is  excessive  that  the  mind  grows 


22  See  also  Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne's  Memoir  on  this  subject  in  tlio 
West  Hiding  Lunatic  Asylum  Medical  Eeport,'  1871,  pp.  95-98. 


326  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIIi. 

confused.  Therefore  it  would  seem  that  the  capillaries 
of  the  face  are  affected,  both  during  the  inhalation  of 
the  nitrite  of  amyl  and  during  blushing,  before  that  part 
of  the  brain  is  affected  on  which  the  mental  powers 
depend. 

Conversely  when  the  brain  is  primarily  affected,  the 
circulation  of  the  skin  is  so  in  a  secondary  manner. 
Dr.  Browne  has  frequently  observed,  as  he  informs  me, 
scattered  red  blotches  and  inottlings  on  the  chests  of 
epileptic  patients.  In  these  cases,  when  the  skin  on 
the  thorax  or  abdomen  is  gently  rubbed  with  a  pencil 
or  other  object,  or,  in  strongly-marked  cases,  is  merely 
touched  by  the  finger,  the  surface  becomes  suffused  in 
less  than  half  a  minute  with  bright  red  marks,  which 
spread  to  some  distance  on  each  side  of  the  touched 
point,  and  persist  for  several  minutes.  These  are  the 
cerebral  maculte  of  Trousseau;  and  they  indicate,  as 
Dr.  Browne  remarks,  a  highly  modified  condition  of  the 
cutaneous  vascular  system.  If,  then,  there  exists,  as 
cannot  be  doubted,  an  intimate  sympathy  between  the 
capillary  circulation  in  that  part  of  the  brain  on  which 
our  mental  powers  depend,  and  in  the  skin  of  the  face, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  the  moral  causes  which  induce 
intense  blushing  should  likewise  induce,  independently  of 
their  own  disturbing  influence,  much  confusion  of  mind. 

The  Nature  of  the  Mental  States  which  induce  Blush- 
ing.— These  consist  of  shyness,  shame,  and  modesty; 
the  essential  element  in  all  being  self-attention.  Many 
reasons  can  be  assigned  for  believing  that  originally 
self-attention  directed  to  personal  appearance,  in  relation 
to  the  opinion  of  others,  was  the  exciting  cause ;  the 
same  effect  being  subsequently  produced,  through 
the  force  of  association,  by  self-attention  in  relation  to 
moral  conduct.  It  is  not  the  simple  act  of  reflecting 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  327 

on  our  own  appearance,  but  the  thinking  what  others 
think  of  us,  which  excites  a  blush.  In  absolute 
solitude  the  most  sensitive  person  would  be  quite 
indifferent  about  his  appearance.  We  feel  blame  or 
disapprobation  more  acutely  than  approbation;  and 
consequently  depreciatory  remarks  or  ridicule,  whether 
of  our  appearance  or  conduct,  causes  us  to  blush  much 
more  readily  than  does  praise.  But  undoubtedly  praise 
and  admiration  are  highly  efficient:  a  pretty  girl 
blushes  when  a  man  gazes  intently  at  her,  though  she 
may  know  perfectly  well  that  he  is  not  depreciating 
her.  Many  children,  as  well  as  old  and  sensitive  per- 
sons blush,  when  they  are  much  praised.  Hereafter  the 
question  will  be  discussed,  how  it  has  arisen  that  the 
consciousness  that  others  are  attending  to  our  personal 
appearance  should  have  led  to  the  capillaries,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  face,  instantly  becoming  filled  with 
blood. 

My  reasons  for  believing  that  attention  directed  to 
personal  appearance,  and  not  to  moral  conduct,  has  been 
the  fundamental  element  in  the  acquirement  of  the  habit 
of  blushing,  will  now  be  given.  They  are  separately 
light,  but  combined  possess,  as  it  appears  to  me,  con- 
siderable weight.  It  is  notorious  that  nothing  makes 
a  shy  person  blush  so  much  as  any  remark,  however 
slight,  on  his  personal  appearance.  One  cannot  notice 
even  the  dress  of  a  woman  much  given  to  blushing, 
without  causing  her  face  to  crimson.  It  is  sufficient 
to  stare  hard  at  some  persons  to  make  them,  as  Cole- 
ridge remarks,  blush,  — "  account  for  that  he  who 
"can."23 

With   the   two  albinos  observed   by  Dr.  Burgess,24 


23  In  a  discussion  on  so-called  animal  magnetism  in  (  Table  Talk,' 
vol.  i.  2t  Ibid.  p.  40. 


328  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 

"  the  slightest  attempt  to  examine  their  peculiarities 
u  invariably "  caused  them  to  blush  deeply.  "Women 
are  much  more  sensitive  about  their  personal  appearance 
than  men  are,  especially  elderly  women  in  comparison 
with  elderly  men,  and  they  blush  much  more  freely. 
The  young  of  both  sexes  are  much  more  sensitive  on 
this  same  head  than  the  old,  and  they  also  blush  much 
more  freely  than  the  old.  Children  at  a  very  early 
age  do  not  blush ;  nor  do  they  show  those  other  signs 
of  self-consciousness  which  generally  accompany  blush- 
ing ;  and  it  is  one  of  their  chief  charms  that  they  think 
nothing  about  what  others  think  of  them.  At  this  early 
age  they  will  stare  at  a  stranger  with  a  fixed  gaze  and 
unblinking  eyes,  as  on  an  inanimate  object,  in  a  manner 
which  we  elders  cannot  imitate. 

It  is  plain  to  every  one  that  young  men  and  women 
are  highly  sensitive  to  the  opinion  of  each  other 
with  reference  to  their  personal  appearance ;  and 
they  blush  incomparably  more  in  the  presence  of  the 
opposite  sex  than  in  that  of  their  own.25  A  young 
man,  not  very  liable  to  blush,  will  blush  intensely  at 
any  slight  ridicule  of  his  appearance  from  a  girl  whose 
judgment  on  any  important  subject  he  would  disregard. 
No  happy  pair  of  young  lovers,  valuing  each  other's 
admiration  and  love  more  than  anything  else  in  the 
world,  probably  ever  courted  each  other  without  many 
a  blush.  Even  the  barbarians  of  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
according  to  Mr.  Bridges,  blush  "  chiefly  in  regard  to 
"  women,  but  certainly  also  at  their  own  personal 
"  appearance." 

Of  all  parts  of  the  body,  the  face  is  most  considered 


25  Mr.  Bam  ('  The  Emotions  and  the  Will/  1865,  p.  65)  remarks  on 
"  the  shyness  of  manners  which  is  induced  between  the  sexes  .... 
"  from  the  influence  of  mutual  regard,  by  the  apprehension  on  either 
"  side  of  not  standing  well  with  the  other." 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  329 

and  regarded,  as  is  natural  from  its  being  the  chief  seat 
of  expression  and  the  source  of  the  voice.  It  is  also  the 
chief  seat  of  beauty  and  of  ugliness,  and  throughout 
the  world  is  the  most  ornamented.26  The  face,  there- 
fore, will  have  been  subjected  during  many  generations 
to  much  closer  and  more  earnest  self-attention  than  any 
other  part  of  the  body;  and  in  accordance  with  the 
principle  here  advanced  we  can  understand  why  it 
should  be  the  most  liable  to  blush.  Although  exposure 
to  alternations  of  temperature,  &c.,  has  probably  much 
increased  the  power  of  dilatation  and  contraction  in  the 
capillaries  of  the  face  and  adjoining  parts,  yet  this  by 
itself  will  hardly  account  for  these  parts  blushing  much 
more  than  the  rest  of  the  body ;  for  it  does  not  explain 
the  fact  of  the  hands  rarely  blushing.  With  Europeans 
the  whole  body  tingles  slightly  when  the  face  blushes 
intensely;  and  with  the  races  of  men  who  habitually 
go  nearly  naked,  the  blushes  extend  over  a  much  larger 
surface  than  with  us.  These  facts  are,  to  a  certain 
extent,  intelligible,  as  the  self-attention  of  primeval  man, 
as  well  as  of  the  existing  races  which  still  go  naked,  will 
not  have  been  so  exclusively  confined  to  their  faces,  as 
is  the  case  with  the  people  who  now  go  clothed. 

We  have  seen  that  in  all  parts  of  the  world  persons 
who  feel  shame  for  some  moral  delinquency,  are  apt  to 
avert,  bend  down,  or  hide  their  faces,  independently 
of  any  thought  about  their  personal  appearance.  The 
object  can  hardly  be  to  conceal  their  blushes,  for 
the  face  is  thus  averted  or  hidden  under  circumstances 
which  exclude  any  desire  to  conceal  shame,  as  when 
guilt  is  fully  confessed  and  repented  of.  It  is,  however, 
probable  that  primeval  man  before  he.  had  acquired 


fr  See.  for  evidence  on  this  subject,  '  The  Descent  of  Man,    &o., 
vol.  ii.  pp.  71,  341. 

15 


330  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 

much  moral  sensitiveness  would  have  been  highly  sen- 
sitive about  his  personal  appearance,  at  least  in  refer- 
ence to  the  other  sex,  and  he  would  consequently  have 
felt  distress  at  any  depreciatory  remarks  about  his 
appearance;  and  this  is  one  form  of  shame.  And  as 
the  face  is  the  part  of  the  body  which  is  most  regarded, 
it  is  intelligible  that  any  one  ashamed  of  his  personal 
appearance  would  desire  to  conceal  this  part  of  his 
body.  The  habit  having  been  thus  acquired,  would 
naturally  be  carried  on  when  shame  from  strictly  moral 
causes  was  felt ;  and  it  is  not  easy  otherwise  to  see  why 
under  these  circumstances  there  should  be  a  desire  to 
hide  the  face  more  than  any  other  part  of  the  body. 

The  habit,  so  general  with  every  one  who  feels 
ashamed,  of  turning  away,  or  lowering  his  eyes,  or  rest- 
lessly moving  them  from  side  to  side,  probably  follows 
from  each  glance  directed  towards  those  present,  bringing 
home  the  conviction  that  he  is  intently  regarded; 
and  he  endeavours,  t)y  not  looking  at  those  present,  and 
especially  not  at  their  eyes,  momentarily  to  escape  from 
this  painful  conviction. 

Shyness.  —  This  odd  state  of  mind,  often  called 
shamefacedness,  or  false  shame,  or  mauvaise  honte,  ap- 
pears to  be  one  of  the  most  efficient  of  all  the  causes  of 
blushing.  Shyness  is,  indeed,  chiefly  recognized  by  the 
face  reddening,  by  the  eyes  being  averted  or  cast  down, 
and  by  awkward,  nervous  movements  of  the  body.  Many 
a  woman  blushes  from  this  cause,  a  hundred,  perhaps 
a  thousand  times,  to  once  that  she  blushes  from  having 
done  anything  deserving  blame,  and  of  which  she 
is  truly  ashamed.  Shyness  seems  to  depend  on  sen- 
sitiveness to  the  opinion,  whether  good  or  bad,  of 
others,  more  especially  with  respect  to  external  appear- 
ance. Strangers  neither  know  nor  care  anything  about 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  331 

our  conduct  or  character,  but  they  may,  and  often 
do,  criticize  our  appearance:  hence  shy  persons  are 
particularly  apt  to  be  shy  and  to  blush  in  the  presence 
of  strangers.  The  consciousness  of  anything  peculiar, 
or  even  new,  in  the  dress,  or  any  slight  blemish  on  the 
person,  and  more  especially  on  the  face — points  which  are 
likely  to  attract  the  attention  of  strangers — makes  the 
shy  intolerably  shy.  On  the  other  hand,  in  those  cases 
in  which  conduct  and  not  personal  appearance  is  con- 
cerned, we  are  much  more  apt  to  be  shy  in  the  presence 
of  acquaintances,  whose  judgment  we  in  some  degree 
value,  than  in  that  of  strangers.  A  physician  told  me 
that  a  young  man,  a  wealthy  duke,  with  whom  he  had 
travelled  as  medical  attendant,  blushed  like  a  girl,  when 
he  paid  him  his  fee ;  yet  this  young  man  probably 
would  not  have  blushed  and  been  shy,  had  he  been 
paying  a  bill  to  a  tradesman.  Some  persons,  however, 
are  so  sensitive,  that  the  mere  act  of  speaking  to 
almost  any  one  is  sufficient  to  rouse  their  self-conscious- 
ness, and  a  slight  blush  is  the  result. 

Disapprobation  or  ridicule,  from  our  sensitiveness 
on  this  head,  causes  shyness  and  blushing  much  more 
readily  than  does  approbation ;  though  the  latter  with 
some  persons  is  highly  efficient.  The  conceited  are 
rarely  shy ;  for  they  value  themselves  much  too  highly 
to  expect  depreciation.  Why  a  proud  man  is  often 
shy,  as  appears  to  be  the  case,  is  not  so  obvious,  unless 
it  be  that,  with  all  his  self-reliance,  he  really  thinks 
much  about  the  opinion  of  others,  although  in  a  dis- 
dainful spirit.  Persons  who  are  exceedingly  shy  are  rarely 
shy  in  the  presence  of  those  with  whom  they  are  quite 
familiar,  and  of  whose  good  opinion  and  sympathy 
they  are  perfectly  assured;  —  for  instance,  a  girl  in 
the  presence  of  her  mother.  I  neglected  to  inquire 
in  my  printed  paper  whether  shyness  can  be  dc-tected 


332  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 

in  the  different  races  of  man;  but  a  Hindoo  gentle- 
man assured  Mr.  Erskine  that  it  is  recognizable  in  his 
countrymen. 

Shyness,  as  the  derivation  of  the  word  indicates  in 
several  languages,27  is  closely  related  to  fear ;  yet  it  is 
distinct  from  fear  in  the  ordinary  sense.  A  shy  man  no 
doubt  dreads  the  notice  of  strangers,  but  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  afraid  of  them ;  he  may  be  as  bold  as  a  hero 
in  battle,  and  yet  have  no  self-confidence  about  trifles 
in  the  presence  of  strangers.  Almost  every  One  is 
extremely  nervous  when  first  addressing  a  public 
assembly,  and  most  men  remain  so  throughout  their 
lives ;  but  this  appears  to  depend  on  the  consciousness 
of  a  great  coming  exertion,  with  its  associated  effects 
on  the  system,  rather  than  on  shyness;28  although  a 
timid  or  shy  man  no  doubt  suffers  on  such  occasions 
infinitely  more  than  another.  With  very  young  children 
it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  fear  and  shyness ; 
but  this  latter  feeling  with  them  has  often  seemed  to 
me  to  partake  of  the  character  of  the  wildness  of  an 
untamed  animal.  Shyness  comes  on  at  a  very  early 
age.  In  one  of  my  own  children,  when  two  years  and 
three  months  old,  I  saw  a  trace  of  what  certainly 
appeared  to  be  shyness,  directed  towards  myself  after 
an  absence  from  home  of  only  a  week.  This  was 
shown  not  by  a  blush,  but  by  the  eyes  being  for  a 
few  minutes  slightly  averted  from  me.  I  have  noticed 
on  other  occasions  that  shyness  or  shamefacedness  and 
real  shame  are  exhibited  in  the  eyes  of  young  children 
before  they  have  acquired  the  power  of  blushing. 

27  H.  Wedgwood,  Diet.  English  Etymology,  vol.  iii.  1865,  p.  184. 
So  with  the  Latin  word  verecundus. 

28  Mr.  Bain  ('  The  Emotions  and  the  Will/  p.  64)  has  discussed  the 
**  abashed  "  feelings  experienced  on  these  occasions,  as  well  as  the 
stage-fright  of  actors  unused  to  the  stage.     Mr.  Bain  apparently  attri- 
butes these  feelings  to  simple  apprehension  or  dread. 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  333 

As  shyness  apparently  depends  on  self-attention,  we 
can  perceive  how  right  are  those  who  maintain  that  re- 
prehending children  for  shyness,  instead  of  doing  them 
any  good,  does  much  harm,  as  it  calls  their  attention 
still  more  closely  to  themselves.  It  has  been  well 
urged  that  *'  nothing  hurts  young  people  more  than  to 
"  be  watched  continually  about  their  feelings,  to  have 
"  their  countenances  scrutinized,  and  the  degrees  of  their 
"  sensibility  measured  by  the  surveying  eye  of  the  un- 
"  merciful  spectator.  Under  the  constraint  of  such 
"  examinations  they  can  think  of  nothing  but  that  they 
"  are  looked  at,  and  feel  nothing  but  shame  or  appre- 
«  hension." 29 

Moral  causes  :  guilt. — With  respect  to  blushing  from 
strictly  moral  causes,  we  meet  with  the  same  funda- 
mental principle  as  before,  namely,  regard  for  the 
opinion  of  others.  It  is  not  the  conscience  which  raises 
a  blush,  for  a  man  may  sincerely  regret  some  slight 
fault  committed  in  solitude,  or  he  may  suffer  the 
deepest  remorse  for  an  undetected  crime,  but  he  will  not 
blush.  *'  I  blush,"  says  Dr.  Burgess,36  "  in  the  presence 
"  of  my  accusers."  It  is  not  the  sense  of  guilt,  but  the 
thought  that  others  think  or  know  us  to  be  guilty  which 
crimsons  the  face.  A  man  may  feel  thoroughly  ashamed 
at  having  told  a  small  falsehood,  without  blushing ;  but 
if  he  even  suspects  that  he  is  detected  he  will  instantly 
blush,  especially  if  detected  by  one  whom  he  reveres. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  man  may  be  convinced  that 
God  witnesses  all  his  actions,  and  he  may  feel  deeply 
conscious  of  some  fault  and  pray  for  forgiveness ;  but 


28  «  Essays  on  Practical  Education/  by  Maria  and  B.  L.  Edgewortk, 
new  edit.  vol.  ii.  1822,  p.  38.  Dr.  Burgess  (ibid.  p.  187)  insists  strongly 
to  the  same  effect.  *•  Ibid.  p.  50. 


334  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 

this  will  not,  as  a  lady  who  is  a  great  blusher  believes, 
ever  excite  a  blush.  The  explanation  of  this  difference 
between  the  knowledge  by  God  and  man  of  our  actions 
lies,  I  presume,  in  man's  disapprobation  of  immoral 
conduct  being  somewhat  akin  in  nature  to  his  depre- 
ciation of  our  personal  appearance,  so  that  through 
association  both  lead  to  similar  results ;  whereas  the 
disapprobation  of  God  brings  up  no  such  association. 

Many  a  person  has  blushed  intensely  when  accused 
of  some  crime,  though  completely  innocent  of  it.  Even 
the  thought,  as  the  lady  before  referred  to  has  observed 
to  me,  that  others  think  that  we  have  made  an  unkind 
or  stupid  remark,  is  amply  sufficient  to  cause  a  blush, 
although  we  know  all  the  time  that  we  have  been  com- 
pletely misunderstood.  An  action  may  be  meritorious 
or  of  an  indifferent  nature,  but  a  sensitive  person,  if  he 
suspects  that  others  take  a  different  view  of  it,  will  blush. 
For  instance,  a  lady  by  herself  may  give  money  to  a 
beggar  without  a  trace  of  a  blush,  but  if  others  are 
present,  and  she  doubts  whether  they  approve,  or 
suspects  that  they  think  her  influenced  by  display,  she 
will  blush.  So  it  will  be,  if  she  offers  to  relieve  the 
distress  of  a  decayed  gentlewoman,  more  particularly  of 
one  whom  she  had  previously  known  under  better 
circumstances,  as  she  cannot  then  feel  sure  how  her 
conduct  will  be  viewed.  But  such  cases  as  these  blend 
into  shyness. 

Breaches  of  etiquette. — The  rules  of  etiquette  always 
refer  to  conduct  in  the  presence  of,  or  towards  others. 
They  have  no  necessary  connection  with  the  moral 
sense,  and  are  often  meaningless.  Nevertheless  as  they 
depend  on  the  fixed  custom  of  our  equals  and  superiors, 
whose  opinion  we  highly  regard,  they  are  considered 
almost  as  binding  as  are  the  laws  of  honour  to  a 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  335 

gentleman.  Consequently  the  breach  of  the  laws  of 
etiquette,  that  is,  any  impoliteness  or  gaucherie,  any 
impropriety,  or  an  inappropriate  remark,  though  quite 
accidental,  will  cause  the  most  intense  blushing  of 
which  a  man  is  capable.  Even  the  recollection  of  such 
an  act,  after  an  interval  of  many  years,  will  make  the 
whole  body  to  tingle.  So  strong,  also,  is  the  power 
of  sympathy  that  a  sensitive  person,  as  a  lady  has 
assured  me,  will  sometimes  blush  at  a  flagrant  breach 
of  etiquette  by  a  perfect  stranger,  though  the  act  may 
in  no  way  concern  her. 

Modesty. — This  is  another  powerful  agent  in  exciting 
blushes  ;  but  the  word  modesty  includes  very  different 
states  of  the  mind.  It  implies  humility,  and  we  often 
judge  of  this  by  persons  being  greatly  pleased  and 
blushing  at  slight  praise,  or  by  being  annoyed  at  praise 
which  seems  to  them  too  high  according  to  their  own 
humble  standard  of  themselves.  Blushing  here  has  the 
usual  signification  of  regard  for  the  opinion  of  others. 
But  modesty  frequently  relates  to  acts  of  indelicacy; 
and  in  lelicacy  is  an  affair  of  etiquette,  as  we  clearly  see 
with  the  nations  that  go  altogether  or  nearly  naked. 
He  who  is  modest,  and  blushes  easily  at  acts  of  this 
nature,  does  so  because  they  are  breaches  of  a  firmly 
and  wisely  established  etiquette.  This  is  indeed  shown 
by  the  derivation  of  the  word  modest  from  modus,  a 
measure  or  standard  of  behaviour.  A  blush  due  to  this 
form  of  modesty  is,  moreover,  apt  to  be  intense,  because 
it  generally  relates  to  the  opposite  sex ;  and  we  have 
seen  how  in  all  cases  our  liability  to  blush  is  thus  in- 
creased. We  apply  the  term  *  modest,'  as  it  would  appear, 
to  those  who  have  an  humble  opinion  of  themselves, 
and  to  those  who  are  extremely  sensitive  about  an 
indelicate  word  or  deed,  simply  because  in  both  cases 


336  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 

blushes  are  readily  excited,  for  these  two  frames  of 
mind  have  nothing  else  in  common.  Shyness  also,  from 
this  same  cause,  is  often  mistaken  for  modesty  in  the 
sense  of  humility. 

Some  persons  flush  up,  as  I  have  observed  and  have 
been  assured,  at  any  sudden  and  disagreeable  recol- 
lection. The  commonest  cause  seems  to  be  the  sudden 
remembrance  of  not  having  done  something  for  another 
person  which  had  been  promised.  In  this  case  it  may 
be  that  the  thought  passes  half  unconsciously  through 
the  mind,  "What  will  he  think  of  me?"  and  then  the 
flush  would  partake  of  the  nature  of  a  true  blush. 
But  whether  such  flushes  are  in  most  cases  due  to  the 
capillary  circulation  being  affected,  is  very  doubtful; 
for  we  must  remember  that  almost  every  strong  emo- 
tion, such  as  anger  or  great  joy,  acts  on  the  heart, 
and  causes  the  face  to  redden. 

The  fact  that  blushes  may  be  excited  in  absolute 
solitude  seems  opposed  to  the  view  here  taken,  namely 
that  the  habit  originally  arose  from  thinking  about 
what  others  think  of  us.  Several  ladies,  who  are  great 
blushers,  are  unanimous  in  regard  to  solitude ;  and  some 
of  them  believe  that  they  have  blushed  in  the  dark. 
From  what  Mr.  Forbes  has  stated  with  respect  to  the 
Aymaras,  and  from  my  own  sensations,  I  have  no  doubt 
that  this  latter  statement  is  correct.  Shakspeare, 
therefore,  erred  when  he  made  Juliet,  who  was  not 
even  by  herself,  say  to  Komeo  (act  ii.  sc.  2)  : — 

"  Thou  know'st  the  mask  of  night  is  on  my  face  ; 
Else  would  a  maiden  blush  bepairit  my  cheek, 
For  that  which  thou  hast  heard  me  speak  to-night." 

Bat  when  a  blush  is  excited  in  solitude,  the  cause 
almost  always  relates  to  the  thoughts  of  others  about 
us— to  acts  done  in  their  presence,  or  suspected  by  them; 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  337 

or  again  when  we  reflect  what  others  would  have 
thought  of  us  had  they  known  of  the  act.  Nevertheless 
one  or  two  of  my  informants  believe  that  they  have 
blushed  from  shame  at  acts  in  no  way  relating  to  others. 
If  this  be  so,  we  must  attribute  the  result  to  the  force  of 
inveterate  habit  and  association,  under  a  state  of  mind 
closely  analogous  to  that  which  ordinarily  excites  a 
blush ;  nor  need  we  feel  surprise  at  this,  as  even  sym- 
pathy with  another  person  who  commits  a  flagrant 
breach  of  etiquette  is  believed,  as  we  have  just  seen, 
sometimes  to  cause  a  blush. 

Finally,  then,  I  conclude  that  blushing, — whether 
due  to  shyness — to  shame  for  a  real  crime — to  shame 
from  a  breach  of  the  laws  of  etiquette— to  modesty 
from  humility — to  modesty  from  an  indelicacy — depends 
in  all  cases  on  the  same  principle ;  this  principle  being 
a  sensitive  regard  for  the  opinion,  more  particularly 
for  the  depreciation  of  others,  primarily  in  relation  to 
our  personal  appearance,  especially  of  our  faces ;  and 
secondarily,  through  the  force  of  association  and  habit, 
in  relation  to  the  opinion  of  others  on  our  conduct. 

Theory  of  Blushing. — We  have  now  to  consider,  why 
should  the  thought  that  others  are  thinking  about  us 
affect  our  capillary  circulation?  Sir  0.  Bell  insists 31 
that  blushing  "  is  a  provision  for  expression,  as  may  be 
"  inferred  from  the  colour  extending  only  to  the  surface 
"  of  the  face,  neck,  and  breast,  the  parts  most  exposed. 
"  It  is  not  acquired ;  it  is  from  the  beginning."  Dr. 
Burgess  believes  that  it  was  designed  by  the  Creator 
in  "  order  that  the  soul  might  have  sovereign  power  of 
"  displaying  in  the  cheeks  the  various  internal  emotions 


81  Bell,  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  95.    Burgess,  as  quoted  belo^ 
ibid.  p.  49.    Gratiolet,  De  la  Phys.  p.  94. 


338  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII 

*  of  the  moral  feelings ;  "  so  as  to  serve  as  a  check  on 
ourselves,  and  as  a  sign  to  others,  that  we  were  violating 
rules  which  ought  to  be  held  sacre'l.  Gratiolet  merely 
remarks, — "  Or,  comme  il  est  dans  1'ordre  de  la  nature 
"  que  l'£tre  social  le  plus  intelligent  soit  aussi  le  plus 
"  intelligible,  cette  faculte  de  rougeur  et  de  paleur  qui 
"  distingue  1'horame,  est  un  signe  naturel  de  sa  haute 
"  perfection." 

The  belief  that  blushing  was  specially  designed  by 
the  Creator  is  opposed  to  the  general  theory  of  evolu- 
tion, which  is  now  so  largely  accepted ;  but  it  forms 
no  part  of  my  duty  here  to  argue  on  the  general  ques- 
tion. Those  who  believe  in  design,  will  find  it  difficult 
to  account  for  shyness  being  the  most  frequent  and 
efficient  of  all  the  causes  of  blushing,  as  it  makes  the 
blusher  to  suffer  and  the  beholder  uncomfortable,  with- 
out being  of  the  least  service  to  either  of  them.  They 
will  also  find  it  difficult  to  account  for  negroes  and 
other  dark-coloured  races  blushing,  in  whom  a  change 
of  colour  in  the  skin  is  scarcely  or  not  at  all  visible. 

No  doubt  a  slight  blush  adds  to  the  beauty  of  a 
maiden's  face;  and  the  Circassian  women  who  are 
capable  of  blushing,  invariably  fetch  a  higher  price  in 
the  seraglio  of  the  Sultan  than  le?s  susceptible  women.32 
But  the  firmest  believer  in  the  efficacy  of  sexual  selec- 
tion will  hardly  suppose  that  blushing  was  acquired  as 
a  sexual  ornament.  This  view  would  also  be  opposed 
to  what  has  just  been  said  about  the  dark-coloured 
races  blushing  in  an  invisible  manner. 

The  hypothesis  which  appears  to  me  the  most  pro- 
bable, though  it  may  at  first  seem  rash,  is  that  atten- 
tion closely  directed  to  any  part  of  the  body  tends  to 


32  On  the  authority  of  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montague  •  see  Burgess, 
ibid.  p.  43. 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  339 

interfere  with  the  ordinary  and  tonic  contraction  of  the 
small  arteries  of  that  part.  These  vessels,  in  conse- 
quence, become  at  such  times  more  or  less  relaxed,  an  1 
are  instantly  filled  with  arterial  blood.  This  tendency 
will  have  been  much  strengthened,  if  frequent  attention 
has  been  paid  during  many  generations  to  the  same  part, 
owing  to  nerve-force  readily  flowing  along  accustomed 
channels,  and  by  the  power  of  inheritance.  Whenever 
we  believe  that  others  are  depreciating  or  even  con- 
sidering our  personal  appearance,  onr  attention  is 
vividly  directed  to  the  outer  and  visible  parts  of  our 
bodies;  and  of  all  such  parts  we  are  most  sensitive 
about  our  faces,  as  no  doubt  has  been  the  case  during 
many  past  generations.  Therefore,  assuming  for  the 
moment  that  the  capillary  vessels  can  be  acted  on  by 
close  attention,  those  of  the  face  will  have  become 
eminently  susceptible.  Through  the  force  of  associa- 
tion, the  same  effects  will  tend  to  follow  whenever  we 
think  that  others  are  considering  or  censuring  our 
actions  or  character. 

As  the  basis  of  this  theory  rests  on  mental  attention 
having  some  power  to  influence  the  capillary  circula- 
tion, it  will  be  necessary  to  give  a  considerable  body 
of  details,  bearing  more  or  less  directly  on  this  subject. 
Several  observers,33  who  from  their  wide  experience 


33  In  England,  Sir  H.  Holland  was,  I  believe,  the  first  to  consider 
the  influence  of  mental  attention  on  various  parts  of  the  body,  in  his 
*  Medical  Notes  and  Reflections,'  1889,  p.  61.  This  essay,  much  en- 
larged, was  reprinted  by  Sir  H.  Holland  in  his  '  Chapters  on  Mental 
Phy^ology,'  1858,  p.  79,  from  which  work  I  always  quote.  At  neaily 
the  same  time,  as  well  as  subsequently,  Prof.  Laycock  discussed  the 
same  subject :  see  *  Edinburgh  Medical  and  Surgi<  al  Journal/  1839, 
July,  pp.  17-22.  Also  his  l  Treatise  on  the  Nervous  Diseases  of  Women,' 
1840,  p.  110;  and  'Mind  and  Brain,'  vol.  ii.  1860,  p.  327.  Dr.  Car- 
penter's views  on  mesmerism  have  a  nearly  similar  bearing.  The  great 
physiologist  M tiller  treated  (•  Elements  of  Physiology,'  Eng.  trnnskt. 


340  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII 

and  knowledge  are  eminently  capable  of  forming  a 
sound  judgment,  are  convinced  that  attention  or  con- 
sciousness (which  latter  term  Sir  H.  Holland  thinks 
the  more  explicit)  concentrated  on  almost  any  part 
of  the  body  produces  some  direct  physical  effect  on 
it.  This  applies  to  the  movements  of  the  involuntary 
muscles,  and  of  the  voluntary  muscles  when  acting 
involuntarily, — to  the  secretion  of  the  glands, — to  the 
activity  of  the  senses  and  sensations, — and  even  to 
the  nutrition  of  parts. 

It  is  known  that  the  involuntary  movements  of  the 
heart  are  affected  if  close  attention  be  paid  to  them. 
Gratiolet 34  gives  the  case  of  a  man,  who  by  continually 
watching  and  counting  his  own  pulse,  at  last  caused 
one  beat  out  of  every  six  to  intermit.  On  the  other 
hand,  my  father  told  me  of  a  careful  observer,  who 
certainly  had  heart-disease  and  died  from  it,  and  who 
positively  stated  that  his  pulse  was  habitually  irre- 
gular to  an  extreme  degree ;  yet  to  his  great  disap- 
pointment it  invariably  became  regular  as  soon  as  my 
father  entered  the  room.  Sir  H.  Holland  remarks,35 
that  "  the  effect  upon  the  circulation  of  a  part  from  the 
"  consciousness  suddenly  directed  and  fixed  upon  it, 
"  is  often  obvious  and  immediate."  Professor  Laycock, 
who  has  particularly  attended  to  phenomena  of  this 
nature,36  insists  that  "  when  the  attention  is  directed 
"  to  any  portion  of  the  body,  innervation  and  circula- 
"  tion  are  excited  locally,  and  the  functional  activity  of 
"  that  portion  developed." 

vol.  ii.  pp.  937,  1085)  of  the  influence  of  the  attention  on  the  senses 
Sir  J.  Paget  discusses  the  influence  of  the  mind  on  the  nutrition  of 
parts,  in  his  '  Lectures  on  Surgical  Pathology,'  1853,  vol.  i.  p.  39 :  I 
quote  from  the  3rd  edit,  revised  by  Prof.  Turner,  1870,  p.  28,  See, 
aUo,  Gratiolet,  De  la  Phys.  pp.  283-287.  34  De  la  Phys.  p.  283. 

"  '  Chapters  on  Mental  Physiology/  1858,  p.  111. 

36  *  Mind  and  Brain,'  vol.  ii.  18CO,  p.  327. 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  341 

It  is  generally  believed  that  the  peristaltic  move- 
ments of  the  intestines  are  influenced  by  attention  being 
paid  to  them  at  fixed  recurrent  periods ;  and  these 
movements  depend  on  the  contraction  of  unstriped 
and  involuntary  muscles.  The  abnormal  action  of  the 
voluntary  muscles  in  epilepsy,  chorea,  and  hysteria  is 
known  to  be  influenced  by  the  expectation  of  an 
attack,  and  by  the  sight  of  other  patients  similarly 
affected.37  So  it  is  with  the  involuntary  acts  of  yawning 
and  laughing. 

Certain  glands  are  much  influenced  by  thinking  of 
them,  or  of  the  conditions  under  which  they  have  been 
habitually  excited.  This  is  familiar  to  every  one  in 
the  increased  flow  of  saliva,  when  the  thought,  for  in- 
stance, of  intensely  acid  fruit  is  kept  before  the  mind.38 
It  was  shown  in  our  sixth  chapter,  that  an  earnest 
and  long-continued  desire  either,  to  repress,  or  to  in- 
crease, the  action  of  the  lacrymal  glands  is  effectual. 
Some  curious  cases  have  been  recorded  in  the  case  of 
women,  of  the  power  of  the  mind  on  the  mammary 
glands ;  and  still  more  remarkable  ones  in  relation  to 
the  uterine  functions.39 


3T  '  Chapters  on  Mental  Physiology,'  pp.  104-106. 

^  See  Gratiolet  on  this  subject,  De  la  Phys.  p.  287. 

39  Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne,  from  his  observations  on  the  insane,  is 
convinced  that  attention  directed  for  a  prolonged  period  on  any  part  or 
organ  may  ultimately  influence  its  capillary  circulation  and  nutrition. 
He  has  given  me  some  extraordinary  cases ;  one  of  these,  which 
cannot  here  be  related  in  full,  refers  to  a  married  woman  fifty  years  of 
age,  who  laboured  under  the  firm  and  long-continued  delusion  that 
she  was  pregnant.  "When  the  expected  period  arrived,  she  acted  pre- 
cisely as  if  she  had  been  really  delivered  of  a  child,  and  seemed  to 
suffer  extreme  pain,  so  that  the  perspiration  broke  out  on  her  forehead. 
The  result  was  that  a  state  of  things  returned,  continuing  for  three 
days,  which  had  ceased  during  the  six  previous  years.  Mr.  Braid 
gives,  in  his  '  Magic,  Hypnotism,'  &c.,  1852,  p.  95,  and  in  his  other 
works,  analogous  cases,  as  well  as  other  facts  showing  the  great  in- 
fluence of  the  will  on  the  mammary  glands,  even  on  one  breast  alone. 


842  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 

When  \ve  direct  our  whole  attention  to  any  one 
sense,  its  acuteness  is  increased ; 40  and  the  continued 
habit  of  close  attention,  as  with  blind  people  to  that 
of  hearing,  and  with  the  blind  and  deaf  to  that  of 
touch,  appears  to  improve  the  sense  in  question  per- 
manently. There  is,  also,  some  reason  to  believe, 
judging  from  the  capacities  of  different  races  of  man, 
that  the  effects  are  inherited.  Turning  to  ordinary 
sensations,  it  is  well  known  that  pain  is  increased 
by  attending  to  it ;  and  Sir  B.  Brodie  goes  so  far  as  to 
believe  that  pain  may"  be  felt  in  any  part  of  the  body 
to  which  attention  is  closely  drawn.41  Sir  H.  Holland 
also  remarks  that  we  become  not  only  conscious  of  the 
existence  of  a  part  subjected  to  concentrated  attention, 
but  we  experience  in  it  various  odd  sensations,  as  of 
weight,  heat,  cold,  tingling,  or  itching.42 

Lastly,  some  physiologists  maintain  that  the  mind 
can  influence  the  nutrition  of  parts.  Sir  J.  Paget 
has  given  a  curious  instance  of  the  power,  not  in- 
deed of  the  mind,  but  of  the  nervous  system,  on  the 
hair.  A  lady  "  who  is  subject  to  attacks  of  what  is 
"  called  nervous  headache,  always  finds  in  the  morning 
"  after  such  an  one,  that  some  patches  of  her  hair 
"  are  white,  as  if  powdered  with  starch.  The  change 
"  is  effected  in  a  night,  and  in  a  few  days  after,  the 
"  hairs  gradually  regain  their  dark  brownish  colour."43 


40  Dr.  Maudsley  has  given  ('  The  Physiology  and  Pathology  of  Mind  ' 
2nd  edit.  1868,  p.  105),  on  good  authority,  some  curious  statements  with 
respect  to  the  improvement  of  the  sense  of  touch  by  practice  and  atten- 
tion.   It  is  remarkable  that  when  this  sense  has  thus  been  rendered 
more  acute  at  any  point  of  the  body,  for  instance,  in  a  finger,  it  is  likewise 
improved  at  the  corresponding  point  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body. 

41  'The  Lancet,'   1838,  pp.   39-40,  as  quoted  by  Prof.  Laycock, 
*  Nervous  Diseases  of  Women/  1840,  p.  110. 

42  *  Chapters  on  Mental  Physiology,'  1858,  pp.  91-93. 

43  'Lectures  on  Surgical  Pathology,'   3rd  edit,  revised  by  Prof. 
Turner,  1870,  pp.  28,  31. 


C  HAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  343 

We  thus  see  that  close  attention  certainly  affects 
various  parts  and  organs,  which  are  not  properly  under 
the  control  of  the  will.  By  what  means  attention — 
perhaps  the  most  wonderful  of  all  the  wondrous  powers 
of  the  mind — is  effected,  is  an  extremely  obscure 
subject.  According  to  Miiller,44  the  process  by  which 
the  sensory  cells  of  the  brain  are  rendered,  through 
the  will,  susceptible  of  receiving  more  intense  and  dis- 
tinct impressions,  is  closely  analogous  to  that  by  which 
the  motor  cells  are  excited  to  send  nerve-force  to  the 
voluntary  muscles.  There  are  many  points  of  analogy 
in  the  action  of  the  sensory  and  motor  nerve-cells  ;  for 
instance,  the  familiar  fact  that  close  attention  to  any 
one  sense  causes  fatigue,  like  the  prolonged  exertion 
of  any  one  muscle.45  When  therefore  we  voluntarily 
concentrate  our  attention  on  any  part  of  the  body,  the 
cells  of  the  brain  which  receive  impressions  or  sensa- 
tions from  that  part  are,  it  is  probable,  in  some  un- 
known manner  stimulated  into  activity.  This  may 
account,  without  any  local  change  in  the  part  to  which 
our  attention  is  earnestly  directed,  for  pain  or  odd  sen- 
sations being  there  felt  or  increased. 

If,  however,  the  part  is  furnished  with  muscles,  we 
cannot  feel  sure,  as  Mr.  Michael  Foster  has  remarked 
to  me,  that  some  slight  impulse  may  not  be  uncon- 
sciously sent  to  such  muscles ;  and  this  would  probably 
cause  an  obscure  sensation  in  the  part. 

In  a  large  number  of  cases,  as  with  the  salivary  and 
lacrymal  glands,  intestinal  canal,  &c.,  the  power  ol 
attention  seems  to  rest,  either  chiefly,  or  as  some  phy- 
siologists think,  exclusively,  on  the  vaso-motor  system 
being  affected  in  such  a  manner  that  more  blood  is 


44  '  Elements  of  Physiology,'  Eng.  translat.  vol.  ii.  p.  938. 

45  Prof.  Laycock  has  discussed  this  point  in  a  very  interesting 
manner.    See  his  *  Nervous  Diseases  of  Women,'  1840,  p.  110. 


344  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 

allowed  to  flow  into  the  capillaries  of  the  part  in  ques- 
tion. This  increased  action  of  the  capillaries  may  in 
some  cases  be  combined  with  the  simultaneously  in- 
creased activity  of  the  sensorium. 

The  manner  in  which  the  mind  affects  the  vaso- 
motor  system  may  be  conceived  in  the  following 
manner.  When  we  actually  taste  sour  fruit,  an  im- 
pression is  sent  through  the  gustatory  nerves  to  a 
certain  part  of  the  sensorium ;  this  transmits  nerve- 
force  to  the  vaso-motor  centre,  which  consequently 
allows  the  muscular  coats  of  the  small  arteries  that 
permeate  the  salivary  glands  to  relax.  Hence  more 
blood  flows  into  these  glands,  and  they  secrete  a  copious 
supply  of  saliva.  Now  it  does  not  seem  an  improbable 
assumption,  that,  when  we  reflect  intently  on  a  sensa- 
tion, the  same  part  of  the  sensorium,  or  a  closely  con- 
nected part  of  it,  is  brought  into  a  state  of  activity,  in 
the  same  manner  as  when  we  actually  perceive  the 
sensation.  If  so,  the  same  cells  in  the  brain  will  be 
excited,  though,  perhaps,  in  a  less  degree,  by  vividly 
thinking  about  a  sour  taste,  as  by  perceiving  it;  and 
they  will  transmit  in  the  one  case,  as  in  the  other,  nerve- 
force  to  the  vaso-motor  centre  with  the  same  results. 

To  give  another,  and,  in  some  respects,  more  appro- 
priate illustration.  If  a  man  stands  before  a  hot  fire, 
his  face  reddens.  This  appears  to  be  due,  as  Mr. 
Michael  Foster  informs  me,  in  part  to  the  local  action 
of  the  heat,  and  in  part  to  a  reflex  action  from  the 
vaso-motor  centres.46  In  this  latter  case,  the  beat  affects 
the  nerves  of  the  face;  these  transmit  an  impression 
to  the  sensory  cells  of  the  brain,  which  act  on  the 


48  See,  also,  Mr.  Michael  Foster,  on  the  action  of  the  vaso-motor 
system,  in  his  interesting  Lecture  before  the  Eoyal  Institution,  as 
translated  in  the  'Kevue  des  Cours  Scientifiques,'  Sept.  25,  1869, 
p.  683. 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  345 

vaso- motor  centre,  and  this  reacts  on  the  small  arteries 
of  the  face,  relaxing  them  and  allowing  them  to  become 
filled  with  blood.  Here,  again,  it  seems  not  improbable 
that  if  we  were  repeatedly  to  concentrate  with  great 
earnestness  our  attention  on  the  recollection  of  our 
heated  faces,  the  same  part  of  the  sensorium  which 
gives  us  the  consciousness  of  actual  heat  would  be  in 
some  slight  degree  stimulated,  and  would  in  conse- 
quence tend  to  transmit  some  nerve-force  to  the  vaso- 
motor  centres,  so  as  to  relax  the  capillaries  of  the  face. 
Now  as  men  during  endless  generations  have  had  their 
attention  often  and  earnestly  directed  to  their  personal 
appearance,  and  especially  to  their  faces,  any  incipient 
tendency  in  the  facial  capillaries  to  be  thus  affected 
will  have  become  in  the  course  of  time  greatly  strength- 
ened through  the  principles  just  referred  to,  namely, 
nerve-force  passing  readily  along  accustomed  channels, 
and  inherited  habit.  Thus,  as  it  appears  to  me,  a 
plausible  explanation  is  afforded  of  the  leading  pheno- 
mena connected  with  the  act  of  blushing. 

Recapitulation. — Men  and  women,  and  especially  the 
young,  have  always  valued,  in  a  high  degree,  their 
personal  appearance ;  and  have  likewise  regarded  the 
appearance  of  others.  The  face  has  been  the  chief  object 
of  attention,  though,  when  man  aboriginally  went  naked, 
the  whole  surface  of  his  body  would  have  been  attended 
to.  Our  self-attention  is  excited  almost  exclusively  by 
the  opinion  of  others,  for  no  person  living  in  absolute 
solitude  would  care  about  his  appearance.  Every  one 
feels  blame  more  acutely  than  praise.  Now,  whenever 
we  know,  or  suppose,  that  others  are  depreciating  our 
personal  appearance,  our  attention  is  strongly  drawn 
towards  ourselves,  more  especially  to  our  faces.  The 
probable  effect  of  this  will  be,  as  has  just  been  ex- 


34:6  BLUSHING.  CHAP.  XIII. 

plained,  to  excite  into  activity  that  part  of  the  senso- 
rium  which  receives  the  sensory  nerves  of  the  face; 
and  this  will  react  through  the  vaso-motor  system  on 
the  facial  capillaries.  By  frequent  reiteration  during 
numberless  generations,  the  process  will  have  become 
so  habitual,  in  association  with  the  belief  that  others 
are  thinking  of  us,  that  even  a  suspicion  of  their 
depreciation  suffices  to  relax  the  capillaries,  without 
any  conscious  thought  about  our  faces.  With  some 
sensitive  persons  it  is  enough  even  to  notice  their 
dress  to  produce  the  same  effect.  Through  the  force, 
also,  of  association  and  inheritance  our  capillaries  are 
relaxed,  whenever  we  know,  or  imagine,  that  any  one 
is  blaming,  though  in  silence,  our  actions,  thoughts,  or 
character ;  and,  again,  when  we  are  highly  praised. 

On  this  hypothesis  we  can  understand  how  it  is  that 
the  face  blushes  much  more  than  any  other  part  of  the 
body,  though  the  whole  surface  is  somewhat  affected, 
more  especially  with  the  races  which  still  go  nearly 
naked.  It  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  the  dark- 
coloured  races  should  blush,  though  no  change  of 
colour  is  visible  in  their  skins.  From  the  principle 
of  inheritance  it  is  not  surprising  that  persons  born 
blind  should  blush.  We  can  understand  why  the 
young  are  much  more  affected  than  the  old,  and  women 
more  than  men ;  and  why  the  opposite  sexes  especially 
excite  each  other's  blushes.  It  becomes  obvious  why 
personal  remarks  should  be  particularly  liable  to  cause 
blushing,  and  why  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  causes 
is  shyness;  for  shyness  relates  to  the  presence  and 
opinion  of  others,  and  the  shy  are  always  more  or  less 
self-conscious.  With  respect  to  real  shame  from  moral 
delinquencies,  we  can  perceive  why  it  is  not  guilt,  but 
the  thought  that  others  think  us  guilty,  which  raises  a 
blush.  A  man  reflecting  on  a  crime  committed  in 


CHAP.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  347 

solitude,  and  stung  by  his  conscience,  does  not  blush ; 
yet  he  will  blush  under  the  vivid  recollection  of  a 
detected  fault,  or  of  one  committed  in  the  presence  of 
others,  the  degree  of  blushing  being  closely  related  to 
the  feeling  of  regard  for  those  who  have  detected, 
witnessed,  or  suspected  his  fault.  Breaches  of  con- 
ventional rules  of  conduct,  if  they  are  rigidly  insisted 
on  by  our  equals  or  superiors,  often  cause  more  intense 
blushes  even  than  a  detected  crime ;  and  an  act  which 
is  really  criminal,  if  not  blamed  by  our  equals,  hardly 
raises  a  tinge  of  colour  on  our  cheeks.  Modesty  from 
humility,  or  from  an  indelicacy,  excites  a  vivid  blush, 
as  both  relate  to  the  judgment  or  fixed  customs  of  others. 

From  the  intimate  sympathy  which  exists  between  the 
capillary  circulation  of  the  surface  of  the  head  and  of 
the  brain,  whenever  there  is  intense  blushing,  there  will 
be  some,  and  often  great,  confusion  of  mind.  This  is  fre- 
quently accompanied  by  awkward  movements,  and  some- 
times by  the  involuntary  twitching  of  certain  muscles. 

As  blushing,  according  to  this  hypothesis,  is  an  in- 
direct result  of  attention,  originally  directed  to  our 
personal  appearance,  that  is  to  the  surface  of  the  body, 
and  more  especially  to  the  face,  we  can  understand  the 
meaning  of  the  gestures  which  accompany  blushing 
throughout  the  world.  These  consist  in  hiding  the 
face,  or  turning  it  towards  the  ground,  or  to  one  side. 
The  eyes  are  generally  averted  or  are  restless,  for  to 
look  at  the  man  who  causes  us  to  feel  shame  or  shy- 
ness, immediately  brings  home  in  an  intolerable  man- 
ner the  consciousness  that  his  gaze  is  directed  on  us. 
Through  the  principle  of  associated  habit,  tl>e  same 
movements  of  the  face  and  eyes  are  practised,  and 
can,  indeed,  hardly  be  avoided,  whenever  we  know 
or  believe  that  others  are  blaming,  or  too  strongly 
praising,  our  moral  conduct. 


348  CONCLUDING  REMAKES  CHAP.  XIV. 


CHAPTEK   XIV. 

CONCLUDING  REMABKS  AND  SUMMARY. 

The  three  leading  principles  which  have  determined  the  chief  move- 
ments of  expression  —  Their  inheritance  —  On  the  part  which 
the  will  and  intention  have  played  in  the  acquirement  of  various 
expressions  —  The  instinctive  recognition  of  expression  —  The 
bearing  of  our  subject  on  the  specific  unity  of  the  races  of  man  — 
On  the  successive  acquirement  of  various  expressions  by  the  pro- 
genitors of  man  —  The  importance  of  expression  —  Conclusion. 

I  HAVE  now  described,  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  the 
chief  expressive  actions  in  man,  and  in  some  few  of 
the  lower  animals.  I  have  also  attempted  to  explain 
the  origin  or  development  of  these  actions  through  the 
three  principles  given  in  the  first  chapter.  The  first 
of  these  principles  is,  that  movements  which  are  ser- 
viceable in  gratifying  some  desire,  or  in  relieving  some 
sensation,  if  often  repeated,  become  so  habitual  that 
they  are  performed,  whether  or  not  of  any  service, 
whenever  the  same  desire  or  sensation  is  felt,  even  in  a 
very  weak  degree. 

Our  second  principle  is  that  of  antithesis.  The  habit 
of  voluntarily  performing  opposite  movements  under 
opposite  impulses  has  become  firmly  established  in  us 
by  the  practice  of  our  whole  lives.  Hence,  if  certain 
actions  have  been  regularly  performed,  in  accordance 
with  our  first  principle,  under  a  certain  frame  of  mind, 
there  will  be  a  strong  and  involuntary  tendency  to  the 
performance  of  directly  opposite  actions,  whether  or  not 
these  are  of  any  use,  under  the  excitement  of  an  oppo- 
site frame  of  mind. 


CHAP.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  349 

Our  third  principle  is  the  direct  action  of  the  excited 
nervous  system  on  the  body,  independently  of  the  will, 
and  independently,  in  large  part,  of  habit.  Experience 
shows  that  nerve-force  is  generated  and  set  free 
whenever  the  cerebro-spinal  system  is  excited.  The 
direction  which  this  nerve-force  follows  is  necessarily 
determined  by  the  lines  of  connection  between  the 
nerve-cells,  with  each  other  and  with  various  parts 
of  the  body.  But  the  direction  is  likewise  much  in- 
fluenced by  habit;  inasmuch  as  nerve-force  passes 
readily  along  accustomed  channels. 

The  frantic  and  senseless  actions  of  an  enraged  man 
may  be  attributed  in  part  to  the  undirected  flow  of 
nerve-force,  and  in  part  to  the  effects  of  habit,  for  these 
actions  often  vaguely  represent  the  act  of  striking. 
They  thus  pass  into  gestures  included  under  our  first 
principle ;  as  when  an  indignant  man  unconsciously 
throws  himself  into  a  fitting  attitude  for  attacking  his 
opponent,  though  without  any  intention  of  making  an 
actual  attack.  We  see  also  the  influence  of  habit  in 
all  the  emotions  and  sensations  which  are  called  ex- 
citing; for  they  have  assumed  this  character  from 
having  habitually  led  to  energetic  action;  and  action 
affects,  in  an  indirect  manner,  the  respiratory  and 
circulatory  system  ;  and  the  latter  reacts  on  the 
brain.  Whenever  these  emotions  or  sensations  are 
even  slightly  felt  by  us,  though  they  may  not  at  the 
time  lead  to  any  exertion,  our  whole  system  is  never- 
theless disturbed  through  the  force  of  habit  and  asso- 
ciation. Other  emotions  and  sensations  are  called 
depressing,  because  they  have  not  habitually  led  to 
energetic  action,  excepting  just  at  first,  as  in  the  case 
of  extreme  pain,  fear,  and  grief,  and  they  have  ulti- 
mately caused  complete  exhaustion ;  they  are  con- 
sequently expressed  chiefly  by  negative  signs  and  by 


350  CONCLUDING   EEMAKKS  CHAP.  XIV. 

prostration.  Again,  there  are  other  emotions,  such 
as  that  of  affection,  which  do  not  commonly  lead  to 
action  of  any  kind,  and  consequently  are  not  exhibited 
by  any  strongly  marked  outward  signs.  Affection 
indeed,  in  as  far  as  it  is  a  pleasurable  sensation, 
excites  the  ordinary  signs  of  pleasure. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  effects  due  to  the 
excitement  of  the  nervous  system  seem  to  be  quite 
independent  of  the  flow  of  nerve-force  along  the  chan- 
nels which  have  been  rendered  habitual  by  former 
exertions  of  the  will.  Such  effects,  which  often  reveal 
the  state  of  mind  of  the  person  thus  affected,  cannot 
at  present  be  explained;  for  instance,  the  change  of 
colour  in  the  hair  from  extreme  terror  or  grief, — the 
cold  sweat  and  the  trembling  of  the  muscles  from  fea.r, 
— the  modified  secretions  of  the  intestinal  canal, — and 
the  failure  of  certain  glands  to  act. 

Notwithstanding  that  much  remains  unintelligible 
in  our  present  subject,  so  many  expressive  movements 
and  actions  can  be  explained  to  a  certain  extent  through 
the  above  three  principles,  that  we  may  hope  hereafter 
to  see  all  explained  by  these  or  by  closely  analogous 
principles. 

Actions  of  all  kinds,  if  regularly  accompanying  any 
state  of  the  mind,  are  at  once  recognised  as  expressive. 
These  may  consist  of  movements  of  any  part  of  the 
body,  as  the  wagging  of  a  dog's  tail,  the  shrugging  of 
a  man's  shoulders,  the  erection  of  the  hair,  the  exuda- 
tion of  perspiration,  the  state  of  the  capillary  circu- 
lation, laboured  breathing,  and  the  use  of  the  vocal 
or  other  sound-producing  instruments.  Even  insects 
express  anger,  terror,  jealousy,  and  love  by  their  stridu- 
lation.  With  man  the  respiratory  organs  are  of  especial 
importance  in  expression,  not  only  in  a  direct,  but  in  a 
still  higher  degree  in  an  indirect  manner. 


CHAP.  XIV.  AND   SUMMARY.  351 

Few  points  are  more  interesting  in  our  present  sub- 
ject than  the  extraordinarily  complex  chain  of  events 
which  lead  to  certain  expressive  movements.  Take, 
for  instance,  the  oblique  eyebrows  of  a  man  suffering 
irorn  grief  or  anxiety.  When  infants  scream  loudly 
from  hunger  or  pain,  the  circulation  is  affected,  and 
the  eyes  tend  to  become  gorged  with  blood:  conse- 
quently the  muscles  surrounding  the  eyes  are  strongly 
contracted  as  a  protection :  this  action,  in  the  course 
of  many  generations,  has  become  firmly  fixed  and  in- 
herited: but  when,  with  advancing  years  and  culture, 
the  habit  of  screaming  is  partially  repressed,  the 
muscles  round  the  eyes  still  tend  to  contract,  when- 
ever even  slight  distress  is  felt :  of  these  muscles,  the 
pyramidals  of  the  nose  are  less  under  the  control  of 
the  will  than  are  the  others,  and  their  contraction  can 
be  checked  only  by  that  of  the  central  fasciae  of  the 
frontal  muscle :  these  latter  fasciae  draw  up  the  inner 
ends  of  the  eyebrows,  and  wrinkle  the  forehead  in  a 
peculiar  manner,  which  we  instantly  recognise  as  the 
expression  of  grief  or  anxiety.  Slight  movements,  such 
as  these  just  described,  or  the  scarcely  perceptible 
drawing  down  of  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  are  the 
last  remnants  or  rudiments  of  strongly  marked  and 
intelligible  movements.  They  are  as  full  of  signifi- 
cance to  us  in  regard  to  expression,  as  are  ordinary 
rudiments  to  the  naturalist  in  the  classification  and 
genealogy  of  organic  beings. 

That  the  chief  expressive  actions,  exhibited  by  man 
and  by  the  lower  animals,  are  now  innate  or  inherited, 
— that  is,  have  not  been  learnt  by  the  individual, — is 
admitted  by  every  one.  So  little  has  learning  or  imi- 
tation to  do  with  several  of  them  that  they  are 
from  the  earliest  days  and  throughout  life  quite  be- 
yond our  control  ;  for  instance,  the  relaxation  of 


352  CONCLUDING  REMAKES  CHAP.  XIV. 

the  arteries  of  the  skin  in  blushing,  and  the  increased 
action  of  the  heart  in  anger.  We  may  see  children, 
only  two  or  three  years  old,  and  even  those  born  blind, 
blushing  from  shame;  and  the  naked  scalp  of  a  very 
young  infant  reddens  from  passion.  Infants  scream 
from  pain  directly  after  birth,  and  all  their  features 
then  assume  the  same  form  as  during  subsequent  years. 
These  facts  alone  suffice  to  show  that  many  of  our  most 
important  expressions  have  not  been  learnt ;  but  it  is 
remarkable  that  some,  which  are  certainly  innate, 
require  practice  in  the  individual,  before  they  are  per- 
formed in  a  full  and  perfect  manner;  for  instance, 
weeping  and  laughing.  The  inheritance  of  most  of 
our  expressive  actions  explains  the  fact  that  those  born 
blind  display  them,  as  I  hear  from  the  Kev.  E.  H. 
Blair,  equally  well  with  those  gifted  with  e  esight. 
We  can  thus  also  understand  the  fact  that  the  young 
and  the  old  of  widely  different  races,  both  with  man 
and  animals,  express  the  same  state  of  mind  by  the 
same  movements. 

We  are  so  familiar  with  the  fact  of  young  and  old 
animals  displaying  their  feelings  in  the  same  manner, 
that  we  hardly  perceive  how  remarkable  it  is  that  a 
young  puppy  should  wag  its  tail  when  pleased,  depress 
its  ears  and  uncover  its  canine  teeth  when  pretending 
to  be  savage,  just  like  an  old  dog ;  or  that  a  kitten 
should  arch  its  little  back  and  erect  its  hair  when 
frightened  and  angry,  like  an  old  cat.  When,  how- 
ever, we  turn  to  less  common  gestures  in  ourselves, 
which  we  are  accustomed  to  look  at  as  artificial  or 
conventional, — such  as  shrugging  the  shoulders,  as  a 
sign  of  impotence,  or  the  raising  the  arms  with  open 
hands  and  extended  fingers,  as  a  sign  of  wonder, — we 
feel  perhaps  too  much  surprise  at  finding  that  they  are 
innate.  That  these  and  some  other  gestures  are  in- 


CHAP.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  353 

herited,  we  may  infer  from  their  being  performed  by 
very  young  children,  by  those  born  blind,  and  by  the 
most  widely  distinct  races  of  man.  We  should  also 
bear  in  mind  that  new  and  highly  peculiar  tricks,  in 
association  with  certain  states  of  the  mind,  are  known 
to  have  arisen  in  certain  individuals,  and  to  have  been 
afterwards  transmitted  to  their  offspring,  in  some  cases, 
for  more  than  one  generation. 

Certain  other  gestures,  which  seem  to  us  so  natural 
that  we  might  easily  imagine  that  they  were  innate, 
apparently  have  been  learnt  like  the  words  of  a  lan- 
guage. This  seems  to  be  the  case  with  the  joining  of 
the  uplifted  hands,  and  the  turning  up  of  the  eyes,  in 
prayer.  So  it  is  with  kissing  as  a  mark  of  affection ; 
but  this  is  innate,  in  so  far  as  it  depends  on  the  plea- 
sure derived  from  contact  with  a  beloved  person.  The 
evidence  with  respect  to  the  inheritance  of  nodding 
and  shaking  the  head,  as  signs  of  affirmation  and  nega- 
tion, is  doubtful ;  for  they  are  not  universal,  yet  seem 
too  general  to  have  been  independently  acquired  by  all 
the  individuals  of  so  many  races. 

We  will  now  consider  how  far  the  will  and  conscious- 
ness have  come  into  play  in  the  development  of  the 
various  movements  of  expression.  As  far  as  we  can 
judge,  only  a  few  expressive  movements,  such  as  those 
just  referred  to,  are  learnt  by  each  individual ;  that  is, 
were  consciously  and  voluntarily  performed  during 
the  early  years  of  life  for  some  definite  object,  or  in 
imitation  of  others,  and  then  became  habitual.  The 
far  greater  number  of  the  movements  of  expression, 
and  all  the  more  important  ones,  are,  as  we  have  seen, 
innate  or  inherited ;  and  such  cannot  be  said  to  depend 
on  the  will  of  the  individual.  Nevertheless,  all  those 
included  under  our  first  principle  were  at  first  volun- 
16 


354  CONCLUDING  REMAKES  CHAP.  XIV. 

tarily  performed  for  a  definite  object, — namely,  to 
escape  some  danger,  to  relieve  some  distress,  or  to 
gratify  some  desire.  For  instance,  there  can  hardly 
be  a  doubt  that  the  animals  which  fight  with  their 
teeth,  have  acquired  the  habit  of  drawing  back  their 
ears  closely  to  their  heads,  when  feeling  savage,  from 
their  progenitors  having  voluntarily  acted  in  this 
manner  in  order  to  protect  their  ears  from  being  torn 
by  their  antagonists;  for  those  animals  which  do  not 
fight  with  their  teeth  do  not  thus  express  a  savage  state 
of  mind.  We  may  infer  as  highly  probable  that  we 
ourselves  have  acquired  the  habit  of  contracting  the 
muscles  round  the  eyes,  whilst  crying  gently,  that  is, 
without  the  utterance  of  any  loud  sound,  from  our 
progenitors,  especially  during  infancy,  having  expe- 
rienced, during  the  act  of  screaming,  an  uncomfortable 
sensation  in  their  eyeballs.  Again,  some  highly  ex- 
pressive movements  result  from  the  endeavour  to  check 
or  prevent  other  expressive  movements ;  thus  the  obli- 
quity of  the  eyebrows  and  the  drawing  down  of  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  follow  from  the  endeavour  to 
prevent  a  screaming-fit  from  coming  on^or  to  check  it 
after  it  has  come  on.  Here  it  is  obvious  that  the  con- 
sciousness and  will  must  at  first  have  come  into  play ; 
not  that  we  are  conscious  in  these  or  in  other  such 
cases  what  muscles  are  brought  into  action,  any  more 
than  when  we  perform  the  most  ordinary  voluntary 
movements. 

With  respect  to  the  expressive  movements  due  to 
the  principle  of  antithesis,  it  is  clear  that  the  will  has 
intervened,  though  in  a  remote  and  indirect  manner. 
So  again  with  the  movements  coming  under  our  third 
principle;  these,  in  as  far  as  they  are  influenced  by 
nerve-force  readily  passing  along  habitual  channels, 
have  been  determined  by  former  and  repeated  exer- 


CHAP.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  355 

tions  of  the  will.  The  effects  indirectly  due  to  this 
latter  agency  are  often  combined  in  a  complex  manner, 
through  the  force  of  habit  and  association,  with  those 
directly  resulting  from  the  excitement  of  the  cerebro- 
spinal  system.  This  seems  to  be  the  case  with  the  in- 
creased action  of  the  heart  under  the  influence  of  any 
strong  emotion.  When  an  animal  erects  its  hair,  as- 
sumes a  threatening  attitude,  and  utters  fierce  sounds, 
in  order  to  terrify  an  enemy,  we  see  a  curious  combi- 
nation of  movements  which  were  originally  voluntary 
with  those  that  are  involuntary.  It  is,  however, 
possible  that  even  strictly  involuntary  actions,  such  as 
the  erection  of  the  hair,  may  have  been  affected  by  the 
mysterious  power  of  the  will. 

Some  expressive  movements  may  have  arisen  spon- 
taneously, in  association  with  certain  states  of  the  mind, 
like  the  tricks  lately  referred  to,  and  afterwards  been 
inherited.  But  I  know  of  no  evidence  rendering  this 
view  probable. 

The  power  of  communication  between  the  members 
of  the  same  tribe  by  means  of  language  has  been  of 
paramount  importance  in  the  development  of  man; 
and  the  force  of  language  is  much  aided  by  the  expres- 
sive movements  of  the  face  and  body.  We  perceive 
this  at  once  when  we  converse  on  an  important  sub- 
ject with  any  person  whose  face  is  concealed.  Never- 
theless there  are  no  grounds,  as  far  as  I  can  discover, 
for  believing  that  any  muscle  has  been  developed  or 
even  modified  exclusively  for  the  sake  of  expression. 
The  vocal  and  other  sound-producing  organs,  by  which 
various  expressive  noises  are  produced,  seem  to  form  a 
partial  exception ;  but  I  have  elsewhere  attempted  to 
show  that  these  organs  were  first  developed  for  sexual 
purposes,  in  order  that  one  sex  might  call  or  charm  the 
other.  Nor  can  I  discover  grounds  for  believing  that 


356  CONCLUDING  REMAKES  CHAP.  XIV. 

any  inherited  movement,  which  now  serves  as  a  means 
of  expression,  was  at  first  voluntarily  and  consciously 
performed  for  this  special  purpose, — like  some  of  the 
gestures  and  the  finger-language  used  by  the  deaf  and 
dumb.  On  the  contrary,  every  true  or  inherited  move- 
ment of  expression  seems  to  have  had  some  natural  and 
independent  origin.  But  when  once  acquired,  such 
movements  may  be  .voluntarily  and  consciously  em- 
ployed as  a  means  of  communication.  Even  infants,  if 
carefully  attended  to,  find  out  at  a  very  early  age  that 
their  screaming  brings  relief,  and  they  soon  voluntarily 
practise  it.  We  may  frequently  see  a  person  volun- 
tarily raising  his  eyebrows  to  express  surprise,  or 
smiling  to  express  pretended  satisfaction  and  acqui- 
escence. A  man  often  wishes  to  make  certain  gestures 
conspicuous  or  demonstrative,  and  will  raise  his  ex- 
tended arms  with  widely  opened  fingers  above  his  head, 
to  show  astonishment,  or  lift  his  shoulders  to  his  ears, 
to  show  that  he  cannot  or  will  not  do  something.  The 
tendency  to  such  movements  will  be  strengthened  or 
increased  by  their  being  thus  voluntarily  and  repeatedly 
performed ;  and  the  effects  may  be  inherited. 

It  is  perhaps  worth  consideration  whether  move- 
ments at  first  used  only  by  one  or  a  few  individuals  to 
express  a  certain  state  of  mind  may  not  sometimes 
have  spread  to  others,  and  ultimately  have  become 
universal,  through  the  power  of  conscious  and  uncon- 
scious imitation.  That  there  exists  in  man  a  strong 
tendency  to  imitation,  independently  of  the  conscious 
will,  is  certain.  This  is  exhibited  in  the  most  extra- 
ordinary manner  in  certain  brain  diseases,  especially  at 
the  commencement  of  inflammatory  softening  of  the 
brain,  and  has  been  called  the  "  echo  sign."  Patients 
thus  affected  imitate,  without  understanding,  every 
absurd  gesture  which  is  made,  and  every  word  which 


CHAP.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  357 

is  uttered  near  them,  even  in  a  foreign  language.1  In 
the  case  of  animals,  the  jackal  and  wolf  have  learnt 
under  confinement  to  imitate  the  barking  of  the  dog. 
How  the  barking  of  the  dog,  which  serves  to  express 
various  emotions  and  desires,  and  which  is  so  remark- 
able from  having  been  acquired  since  the  animal  was 
domesticated,  and  from  being  inherited  in  different 
degrees  by  different  breeds,  was  first  learnt,  we  do  not 
know ;  but  may  we  not  suspect  that  imitation  has  had 
something  to  do  with  its  acquisition,  owing  to  dogs 
having  long  lived  in  strict  association  with  so  loqua- 
cious an  animal  as  man  ? 

In  the  course  of  the  foregoing  remarks  and  through- 
out this  volume,  I  have  often  felt  much  difficulty  about 
the  proper  application  of  the  terms,  will,  consciousness, 
and  intention.  Actions,  which  were  at  first  volun- 
tary, soon  become  habitual,  and  at  last  hereditary, 
and  may  then  be  performed  even  in  opposition  to  the 
will.  Although  they  often  reveal  the  state  of  the 
mind,  this  result  was  not  at  first  either  intended  or  ex- 
pected. Even  such  words  as  that  "  certain  movements 
serve  as  a  means  of  expression  "  are  apt  to  mislead,  as 
they  imply  that  this  was  their  primary  purpose  or 
object.  This,  however,  seems  rarely  or  never  to  have 
been  the  case;  the  movements  having  been  at  first 
either  of  some  direct  use,  or  the  indirect  effect  of  the 
excited  state  of  the  sensorium.  An  infant  may  scream 
either  intentionally  or  instinctively  to  show  that  it 
wants  food ;  but  it  has  no  wish  or  intention  to  draw 
its  features  into  the  peculiar  form  which  so  plainly 
indicates  misery ;  yet  some  of  the  most  characteristic 
expressions  exhibited  by  man  are  derived  from  the  act 
of  screaming,  as  has  been  explained. 

1  See  the  interesting  facts  given  by  Dr.  Bateman  on  '  Aphasia/  3870, 
p.  110. 


358  CONCLUDING   REMAKES  CHAP.  XIV. 

Although  most  of  our  expressive  actions  are  innate 
or  instinctive,  as  is  admitted  by  everyone,  it  is  a  dif- 
ferent question  whether  we  have  any  instinctive  power 
of  recognising  them.  This  has  generally  been  assumed 
to  be  the  case ;  but  the  assumption  has  been  strongly 
controverted  by  M.  Lemoine.2  Monkeys  soon  learn 
to  distinguish,  not  only  the  tones  of  voice  of  their 
masters,  but  the  expression  of  their  faces,  as  is  asserted 
by  a  careful  observer.3  Dogs  well  know  the  difference 
between  caressing  and  threatening  gestures  or  tones; 
and  they  seem  to  recognise  a  compassionate  tone.  But 
as  far  as  I  can  make  out,  after  repeated  trials,  they 
do  not  understand  any  movement  confined  to  the 
features,  excepting  a  smile  or  laugh;  and  this  they 
appear,  at  least  in  some  cases,  to  recognise.  This 
limited  amount  of  knowledge  has  probably  been  gained, 
both  by  monkeys  and  dogs,  through'  their  associating 
harsh  or  kind  treatment  with  our  actions ;  and  the 
knowledge  certainly  is  not  instinctive.  Children,  no 
doubt,  would  soon  learn  the  movements  of  expression 
in  their  elders  in  the  same  manner  as  animals  learn 
those  of  man.  Moreover,  when  a  child  cries  or  laughs, 
he  knows  in  a  general  manner  what  he  is  doing 
and  what  he  feels;  so  that  a  very  small  exertion 
of  reason  would  tell  him  what  crying  or  laughing 
meant  in  others.  But  the  question  is,  do  our  chil- 
dren acquire  their  knowledge  of  expression  solely 
by  experience  through  the  power  of  association  and 
reason  ? 

As  most  of  the  movements  of  expression  must  have 
been  gradually  acquired,  afterwards  becoming  instinc- 


!  *  La  Physionomie  et  la  Parole,'  1865,  pp.  103,  118. 

8  Kengger, '  NaturgescMchte  der  Saugethiere  von  Paraguay,'  1830, 


CHAP.  XIV.  AND  SUMMAKY.  359 

tive,  there  seems  to  be  some  degree  of  a  priori  proba- 
bility that  their  recognition  would  likewise  have  become 
instinctive.  There  is,  at  least,  no  greater  difficulty  in 
believing  this  than  in  admitting  that,  when  a  female 
quadruped  first  bears  young,  she  knows  the  cry  of  dis- 
tress of  her  offspring,  or  than  in  admitting  that  many 
animals  instinctively  recognise  and  fear  their  enemies ; 
and  of  both  these  statements  there  can  be  no  reasonable 
doubt.  It  is  however  extremely  difficult  to  prove  that 
our  children  instinctively  recognise  any  expression.  I 
attended  to  this  point  in  my  first-born  infant,  who  could 
not  have  learnt  anything  by  associating  with  other 
children,  and  I  was  convinced  that  he  understood  a 
smile  and  received  pleasure  from  seeing  one,  answering 
it  by  another,  at  much  too  early  an  age  to  have  learnt 
anything  by  experience.  When  this  child  was  about 
four  months  old,  I  made  in  his  presence  many  odd 
noises  and  strange  grimaces,  and  tried  to  look  savage ; 
but  the  noises,  if  not  too  loud,  as  well  as  the  grimaces, 
were  all  taken  as  good  jokes ;  and  I  attributed  this  at 
the  time  to  their  being  preceded  or  accompanied  by 
smiles.  When  five  months  old,  he  seemed  to  under- 
stand a  compassionate  expression  and  tone  of  voice. 
When  a  few  days  over  six  months  old,  his  nurse  pre- 
tended to  cry,  and  I  saw  that  his  face  instantly  assumed 
a  melancholy  expression,  with  the  corners  of  the  mouth 
strongly  depressed;  now  this  child  could  rarely  have 
seen  any  other  child  crying,  and  never  a  grown-up 
person  crying,  and  I  should  doubt  whether  at  so  early 
an  age  he  could  have  reasoned  on  the  subject.  There- 
fore it  seems  to  me  that  an  innate  feeling  must  have 
told  him  that  the  pretended  crying  of  his  nurse  ex- 
pressed grief ;  and  this  through  the  instinct  of  sympathy 
excited  grief  in  him. 

M.  Lemoine  argues  that,  if  man  possessed  an  innate 


360  CONCLUDING  REMARKS  CHAP.  XIV 

knowledge  of  expression,  authors  and  artists  would  not 
have  found  it  so  difficult,  as  is  notoriously  the  case,  to 
describe  and  depict  the  characteristic  signs  of  each 
particular  state  of  mind.  But  this  does  not  seem  to 
me  a  valid  argument.  We  may  actually  behold  the 
expression  changing  in  an  unmistakable  manner  in  a 
man  or  animal,  and  yet  be  quite  unable,  as  I  know 
from  experience,  to  analyse  the  nature  of  the  change. 
In  the  two  photographs  given  by  Duchenne  of  the  same 
old  man  (Plate  III.  figs.  5  and  6),  almost  every  one  re- 
cognised that  the  one  represented  a  true,  and  the  other  a 
false  smile ;  but  I  have  found  it  very  difficult  to  decide 
in  what  the  whole  amount  of  difference  consists.  It 
has  often  struck  me  as  a  curious  fact  that  so  many 
shades  of  expression  are  instantly  recognised  without 
any  conscious  process  of  analysis  on  our  part.  No  one, 
I  believe,  can  clearly  describe  a  sullen  or  sly  expres- 
sion; yet  many  observers  are  unanimous  that  these 
expressions  can  be  recognised  in  the  various  races  of 
man.  Almost  everyone  to  whom  I  showed  Duchenne's 
photograph  of  the  young  man  with  oblique  eyebrows 
(Plate  II.  fig.  2)  at  once  declared  that  it  expressed 
grief  or  some  such  feeling ;  yet  probably  not  one  of 
these  persons,  or  one  out  of  a  thousand  persons, 
could  beforehand  have  told  anything  precise  about 
the  obliquity  of  the  eyebrows  with  their  inner  ends 
puckered,  or  about  the  rectangular  furrows  on  the  fore- 
head. So  it  is  with  many  other  expressions,  of  which  I 
have  had  practical  experience  in  the  trouble  requisite 
in  instructing  others  what  points  to  observe.  If,  then, 
great  ignorance  of  details  does  not  prevent  our  recog- 
nising with  certainty  and  promptitude  various  expres- 
sions, I  do  not  see  how  this  ignorance  can  be  advanced 
as  an  argument  that  our  knowledge,  though  vague  and 
general,  is  not  innate. 


CHAP.  XIV.  AND   SUMMARY.  361 

I  have  endeavoured  to  show  in  considerable  detail 
that  all  the  chief  expressions  exhibited  by  man  are  the 
same  throughout  the  world.  This  fact  is  interesting, 
as  it  affords  a  new  argument  in  favour  of  the  several 
races  being  descended  from  a  single  parent-stock,  which 
must  have  been  almost  completely  human  in  structure, 
and  to  a  large  extent  in  mind,  before  the  period  at  which 
the  races  diverged  from  each  other.  No  doubt  similar 
structures,  adapted  for  the  same  purpose,  have  often 
been  independently  acquired  through  variation  and 
natural  selection  by  distinct  species ;  but  this  view  will 
not  explain  close  similarity  between  distinct  species  in 
a  multitude  of  unimportant  details.  Now  if  we  bear  in 
mind  the  numerous  points  of  structure  having  no  rela- 
tion to  expression,  in  which  all  the  races  of  man  closely 
agree,  and  then  add  to  them  the  numerous  points, 
some  of  the  highest  importance  and  many  of  the  most 
trifling  value,  on  which  the  movements  of  expression 
directly  or  indirectly  depend,  it  seems  to  me  improbable 
in  the  highest  degree  that  so  much  similarity,  or  rather 
identity  of  structure,  could  have  been  acquired  by 
independent  means.  Yet  this  must  have  been  the  case 
if  the  races  of  man  are  descended  from  several  abori- 
ginally distinct  species.  It  is  far  more  probable  that 
the  many  points  of  close  similarity  in  the  various  races 
are  due  to  inheritance  from  a  single  parent-form,  which 
had  already  assumed  a  human  character. 

It  is  a  curious,  though  perhaps  an  idle  speculation, 
how  early  in  the  long  line  of  our  progenitors  the  various 
expressive  movements,  now  exhibited  by  man,  wrere 
successively  acquired.  The  following  remarks  will  at 
least  serve  to  recall  some  of  the  chief  points  discussed 
in  this  volume.  We  may  confidently  believe  that 
laughter,  as  a  sign  of  pleasure  or  enjoyment,  was 
practised  by  our  progenitors  long  before  they  deserved 


362  CONCLUDING   REMARKS  CHAP.  XIV 

to  be  called  human  ;  for  very  many  kinds  of  monkeys, 
when  pleased,  utter  a  reiterated  sound,  clearly  analogous 
to  our  laughter,  often  accompanied  by  vibratory  move- 
ments of  their  jaws  or  lips,  with  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  drawn  backwards  and  upwards,  by  the  wrinkling 
of  the  cheeks,  and  even  by  the  brightening  of  the 
eyes. 

We  may  likewise  infer  that  fear  was  expressed  from 
an  extremely  remote  period,  in  almost  the  same  manner 
as  it  now  is  by  man ;  namely,  by  trembling,  the  erec- 
tion of  the  hair,  cold  perspiration,  pallor,  widely  opened 
eyes,  the  relaxation  of  most  of  the  muscles,  and  by  the 
whole  body  cowering  downwards  or  held  motionless. 

Suffering,  if  great,  will  from  the  first  have  caused 
screams  or  groans  to  be  uttered,  the  body  to  be  con- 
torted, and  the  teeth  to  be  ground  together.  But  our 
progenitors  will  not  have  exhibited  those  highly  expres- 
sive movements  of  the  features  which  accompany 
screaming  and  crying  until  their  circulatory  and  respi- 
ratory organs,  and  the  muscles  surrounding  the  eyes, 
had  acquired  their  present  structure.  The  shedding 
of  tears  appears  to  have  originated  through  reflex 
action  from  the  spasmodic  contraction  of  the  eyelids, 
together  perhaps  with  the  eyeballs  becoming  gorged 
with  blood  during  the  act  of  screaming.  Therefore 
weeping  probably  came  on  rather  late  in  the  line  of 
our  descent;  and  this  conclusion  agrees  with  the  fact 
that  our  nearest  allies,  the  anthropomorphous  apes,  do 
not  weep.  But  we  must  here  exercise  some  caution,  for 
as  certain  monkeys,  which  are  not  closely  related  to 
man,  weep,  this  habit  might  have  been  developed  long 
ago  in  a  sub-branch  of  the  group  from  which  man  is 
derived.  Our  early  progenitors,  when  suffering  from 
grief  or  anxiety,  would  not  have  made  their  eyebrows 
oblique,  or  have  drawn  down  the  corners  of  their  mouth, 


CHAP.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  383 

until  they  bad  acquired  the  habit  of  endeavouring  to 
restrain  their  screams.  The  expression,  therefore,  of 
grief  and  anxiety  is  eminently  human. 

Eage  will  have  been  expressed  at  a  very  early  period 
by  threatening  or  frantic  gestures,  by  the  reddening  of 
the  skin,  and  by  glaring  eyes,  but  not  by  frowning. 
For  the  habit  of  frowning  seems  to  have  been  acquired 
chiefly  from  the  corrugators  being  the  first  muscles  to 
contract  round  the  eyes,  whenever  during  infancy  pain, 
anger,  or  distress  is  felt,  and  there  consequently  is  a  near 
approach  to  screaming;  and  partly  from  a  frown  serving 
as  a  shade  in  difficult  and  intent  vision.  It  seems  pro- 
bable that  this  shading  action  would  not  have  become 
habitual  until  man  had  assumed  a  completely  upright 
position,  for  monkeys  do  not  frown  when  exposed  to  a 
glaring  light.  Our  early  progenitors,  when  enraged, 
would  probably  have  exposed  their  teeth  more  freely 
than  does  man,  even  when  giving  full  vent  to  his 
rage,  as  with  the  insane.  We  may,  also,  feel  almost 
certain  that  they  would  have  protruded  their  lips, 
when  sulky  or  disappointed,  in  a  greater  degree  than 
is  the  case  with  our  own  children,  or  even  with  the 
children  of  existing  savage  races. 

Our  early  progenitors,  when  indignant  or  moderately 
angry,  wrould  not  have  held  their  heads  erect,  opened 
their  chests,  squared  their  shoulders,  and  clenched  their 
fists,  until  they  had  acquired  the 'ordinary  carriage  and 
upright  attitude  of  man,  and  had  learnt  to  fight  with 
their  fists  or  clubs.  Until  this  period  had  arrived  the 
antithetical  gesture  of  shrugging  the  shoulders,  as  a 
sign  of  impotence  or  of  patience,  would  not  have  been 
developed.  From  the  same  reason  astonishment  would 
not  then  have  been  expressed  by  raising  the  arms  with 
open  hands  and  extended  fingers.  Nor,  judging  from 
the  actions  of  monkeys,  would  astonishment  have  been 


364  CONCLUDING   KEMAKKS  CHAP.  XIV. 

exhibited  by  a  widely  open  mouth ;  but  the  eyes  would 
have  been  opened  and  the  eyebrows  arched.  Disgust 
would  have  been  shown  at  a  very  early  period  by 
movements  round  the  mouth,  like  those  of  vomiting, 
— that  is,  if  the  view  which  I  have  suggested  respecting 
the  source  of  the  expression  is  correct,  namely,  that 
our  progenitors  had  the  power,  and  used  it,  of  volun- 
tarily and  quickly  rejecting  any  food  from  their 
stomachs  which  they  disliked.  But  the  more  refined 
manner  of  showing  contempt  or  disdain,  by  lowering 
the  eyelids,  or  turning  away  the  eyes  and  face,  as  if 
the  despised  person  were  not  worth  looking  at,  would  not 
probably  have  been  acquired  until  a  much  later  period. 
Of  all  expressions,  blushing  seems  to  be  the  most 
strictly  human ;  yet  it  is  common  to  all  or  nearly  all 
the  races  of  man,  whether  or  not  any  change  of  colour 
is  visible  in  their  skin.  The  relaxation  of  the  small 
arteries  of  the  surface,  on  which  blushing  depends, 
seems  to  have  primarily  resulted  from  earnest  attention 
directed  to  the  appearance  of  our  own  persons,  especially 
of  our  faces,  aided  by  habit,  inheritance,  and  the  ready 
flow  of  nerve-force  along  accustomed  channels;  and 
afterwards  to  have  been  extended  by  the .  power  of  as- 
sociation to  self-attention  directed  to  moral  conduct. 
It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  many  animals  are  capable 
of  appreciating  beautiful  colours  and  even  forms,  as  is 
shown  by  the  pains  which  the  individuals  of  one  sex 
take  in  displaying  their  beauty  before  those  of  the 
opposite  sex.  But  it  does  not  seem  possible  that  any 
animal,  until  its  mental  powers  had  been  developed  to 
an  equal  or  nearly  equal  degree  with  those  of  man, 
would  have  closely  considered  and  been  sensitive  about 
its  own  personal  appearance.  Therefore  we  may  con- 
clude that  blushing  originated  at  a  very  late  period  in 
the  long  line  of  our  descent. 


CHAP.  XIV.  AND   SUMMARY.  365 

*From  the  various  facts  just  alluded  to,  and  given  in 
the  course  of  this  volume,  it  follows  that,  if  the  struc- 
ture of  our  organs  of  respiration  and  circulation  had 
differed  in  only  a  slight  degree  from  the  state  in  which 
they  now  exist,  most  of  our  expressions  would  have  been 
wonderfully  different.  A  very  slight  change  in  the 
course  of  the  arteries  and  veins  which  run  to  the  head, 
would  probably  have  prevented  the  blood  from  accu- 
mulating in  our  eyeballs  during  violent  expiration; 
for  this  occurs  in  extremely  few  quadrupeds.  In  this 
case  we  should  not  have  displayed  some  of  our  most 
characteristic  expressions.  If  man  had  breathed  water 
by  the  aid  of  external  branchia3  (though  the  idea  is 
hardly  conceivable),  instead  of  air  through  his  mouth 
and  nostrils,  his  features  would  not  have  expressed  his 
feelings  much  more  efficiently  than  now  do  his  hands 
or  limbs.  Kage  and  disgust,  however,  would  still  have 
been  shown  by  movements  about  the  lips  and  mouth, 
and  the  eyes  would  have  become  brighter  or  duller 
according  to  the  state  of  the  circulation.  If  our  ears 
had  remained  movable,  their  movements  would  have 
been  highly  expressive,  as  .is  the  case  with  all  the 
animals  which  fight  with  their  teeth  ;  and  we  may 
infer  that  our  early  progenitors  thus  fought,  as  we 
still  uncover  the  canine  tooth  on  one  side  when  we 
sneer  at  or  defy  any  one,  and  we  uncover  all  our  teeth 
when  furiously  enraged. 

The  movements  of  expression  in  the  face  and  body, 
whatever  their  origin  may  have  been,  are  in  themselves 
of  much  importance  for  our  welfare.  They  serve  as 
the  first  means  of  communication  between  the  mother 
and  her  infant ;  she  smiles  approval,  and  thus  encourages 
her  child  on  the  right  path,  or  frowns  disapproval.  \Ye 
readily  perceive  sympathy  in  others  by  their  expres- 


366  CONCLUDING  REMARKS  CHAP.  XIV. 

sion;  our  sufferings  are  thus  mitigated  and  our  plea- 
sures increased;  and  mutual  good  feeling  is  thus 
strengthened.  The  movements  of  expression  give  vivid- 
ness and  energy  to  our  spoken  words.  They  reveal 
the  thoughts  and  intentions  of  others  more  truly  than 
do  words,  which  may  be  falsified.  Whatever  amount 
of  truth  the  so-called  science  of  physiognomy  may 
contain,  appears  to  depend,  as  Haller  long  ago  re- 
marked,* on  different  persons  bringing  into  frequent 
use  different  facial  muscles,  according  to  their  disposi- 
tions ;  the  development  of  these  muscles  being  perhaps 
thus  increased,  and  the  lines  or  furrows  on  the  face, 
due  to  their  habitual  contraction,  being  thus  rendered 
deeper  and  more  conspicuous.  The  free  expression  by 
outward  signs  of  an  emotion  intensifies  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  repression,  as  far  as  this  is  possible, 
of  all  outward  signs  softens  our  emotions.5  He  who 
gives  way  to  violent  gestures  will  increase  his  rage ;  he 
who  does  not  control  the  signs  of  fear  will  experience 
fear  in  a  greater  degree ;  and  he  who  remains  passive 
when  overwhelmed  with  grief  loses  his  best  chance  of 
recovering  elasticity  of  mind.  These  results  follow 
partly  from  the  intimate  relation  which  exists  between 
almost  all  the  emotions  and  their  outward  manifesta- 
tions ;  and  partly  from  the  direct  influence  of  exertion  on 
the  heart,  and  consequently  on  the  brain.  Even  the 
simulation  of  an  emotion  tends  to  arouse  it  in  our 
minds.  Shakespeare,  who  from  his  wonderful  knowledge 
of  the  human  mind  ought  to  be  an  excellent  judge, 
says : — 

"  Is  it  not  monstrous  that  this  player  here, 
But  in  a  fiction,  in  a  dream  of  passion, 


*  Quoted  by  Moreau,  in  his  edition  ofLavater,  1820,  torn.  iv.  p.  211. 
5  Gratiolet  ('  De  la  Physionomie,'  1865,  p.  66)  insists  on  the  truth  of 
this  conclusion. 


CIIAP.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  367 

Could  force  his  soul  so  to  his  own  conceit, 
That,  from  her  working,  all  his  visage  wann'd  ; 
Tears  in  his  eyes,  distraction  in 's  aspect, 
A  broken  voice,  and  his  whole  function  suiting 
With  forms  to  his  conceit  ?  And  all  for  nothing  !  " 

Hamlet,  act  ii.  so.  2. 

We  have  seen  that  the  study  of  the  theory  of  ex- 
pression confirms  to  a  certain  limited  extent  the  con- 
clusion that  man  is  derived  from  some  lower  animal 
form,  and  supports  the  belief  of  the  specific  or  sub- 
specific  unity  of  the  several  races;  but  as  far  as  my 
judgment  serves,  such  confirmation  was  hardly  needed. 
We  have  also  seen  that  expression  in  itself,  or  the 
language  of  the  emotions,  as  it  has  sometimes  been 
called,  is  certainly  of  importance  for  the  welfare  of 
mankind.  To  understand,  as  far  as  is  possible,  the 
source  or  origin  of  the  various  expressions  which  may 
be  hourly  seen  on  the  faces  of  the  men  around  us,  not 
to  mention  our  domesticated  animals,  ought  to  possess 
much  interest  for  us.  From  these  several  causes,  we 
may  conclude  that  the  philosophy  of  our  subject  has 
well  deserved  the  attention  which  it  has  already  received 
from  several  excellent  observers,  and  that  it  deserves 
still  further  attention,  especially  from  any  able  physio- 
logist. 


INDEX. 


ABSTRACTION. 


BULMER. 


A. 

ABSTRACTION,  228. 

Actions,  reflex,  35 ;  coughing,  sneez- 
ing, &c.,  35 ;  muscular  action  of 
decapitated  frog,  35;  closing  the 
eyelids,  37;  starting,  38-40;  con- 
traction of  the  iris,  41. 

Admiration,  289. 

Affirmation,  signs  of,  273. 

Albinos,  blushing  in,  313,  327. 

Alison,  Professor,  31. 

Ambition,  262. 

Anatomical  drawings  by  Henle,  5. 

Anatomy  and  Philosophy  of  expres- 
sion, 2. 

Anderson,  Dr.,  107,  n.  26. 

Anger,  246  ;  in  monkeys,  137. 

Animals,  special  expressions  of,  116. 
See  Expression. 

,  habitual  associated  movements 
in  the  lower,  42-45 ;  wolves  and 
jackals,  44;  horses,  45;  cats,  46; 
chickens,  47  ;  sheldrakes,  47  ;  fla- 
mingo, kagu,  and  kingfisher,  47, 
48. 

Annesley,  Lieut.,  R.A.,  125,  n.  4. 

Antithesis,  the  principles  of,  50  ;  dogs, 
50,  57 ;  cats,  56 ;  conventional 
signs,  61. 

Anxiety,  178. 

Ape,  the  Gibbon,  produces  musical 
sounds,  87. 

Arrectores  pili,  the,  101,  103. 

Association,  the  power  of,  31 ;  in- 
stances of,  31,  32. 

Astonishment,  278 ;  in  monkeys,  144. 

Audubon,  98,  n.  14. 

Avarice,  262. 

Azara.  126,  n.  6,  129,  n.  7. 


Baboon,  the  Anubis,  96,  134,  138. 
Bain,  Mr.,  8,  31,  200,  n.  4,  291,  n.  16, 
328,  n.  25. 


Baker,  Sir  Samuel,  114. 

Barber,  Mrs.,  22, 108,  n.  28,  269,  289, 

Bartlett,  Mr.,  44,  48,  113,  124,  138. 

Behn,  Dr.,  311. 

Bell,  Mr.,  293. 

,  Sir  Charles,  2,  9,  49,  116,  121, 

158,  173,  213,  220,  222,  305,  337. 

Bennett,  G.,  140,  n.  16. 

Bergeon,  169,  n.  21. 

Bernard,  Claude,  37,  68,  70,  n.  5. 

Billiard-player,  gestures  of  the,  6. 

Birds  ruffle  their  feathers  when  angry, 
97  ;  when  frightened  adpress  them, 
100. 

Blair,  the  Rev.  R.  H.,  311,  352. 

Blind,  tendency  of  the,  to  blush,  312. 

Blush,  the  tendency  to,  inherited, 
312. 

Blushing,  310;  inheritance  of,  312; 
in  the  various  races  of  man,  316; 
movements  and  gestures  which  ac- 
company, 321 ;  confusion  of  mind, 
323 ;  the  nature  of  the  mental 
states  which  induce,  326  ;  shyness, 
330;  moral  causes:  guilt,  333; 
breaches  of  etiquette,  334;  modesty, 
335 ;  theory  of,  337. 

,  the  physiology  or   mechanism 

of,  5,  310,  n.  i. 

Blyth,  Mr.,  97. 

Bowman,  Mr.,  160,  n.  14,  161,  n.  16, 
171,  227. 

Brehm,  96, 129, 138,  n.  14, 139,  n.  15. 

Bridges,  Mr.,  22,  248,  261,  318. 

Bridgmaa,  Laura,  198,  214,  267,  274, 
285,  311. 

Brinton,  Dr.,  159,  n.  13. 

Brodie,  Sir  B.,  342. 

Brooke,  the  Rajah,  21,  209. 

Brown,  Dr.  R.,  108,  n.  29. 

Browne,  Dr.  J.  Crichton,  13,  76,  n.  TO, 
155,  185,  199,  205,  244,  292,  295, 
314,  341,  n.  39. 

Bucknill,  Dr.,  297. 

Bulmer,  Mr.  J.,  20,  209,  251,  285 
321. 


BUNNETT. 


INDEX. 


EXPRESSION. 


369 


Bunnett,    Mr.   Templeton,    20,    178, 

269. 

Burgess,  Dr.,  5,  310,  320,  337. 
Burton,  Captain,  261. 
Button,   Jemmy,   the   Fuegian,   216, 

318. 

C. 

Camper,  Pierre,  1  and  n.  3. 

Canine  tooth,  uncovering  the,  249. 

Carpenter  on  the  principles  of  Com- 
parative Physiology,  47,  n.  1 7. 

Cat,  the,  46,  126 ;  preparing  to  fight, 
56 ;  caressing  her  master,  56 ; 
drawing  back  the  ears,  111;  lash- 
ing the  tail,  126;  movements  of 
affection,  127  ;  when  terrified,  128 ; 
erecting  the  tail,  129  ;  purring,  &c., 
129. 

Catlin,  289. 

Caton,  the  Hon.  J.,  97,  n.  u. 

Cebus  azarse,  the,  133. 

Chameleons,  105. 

Cheerfulness,  212. 

Chevreul,  M.,  6. 

Chimpanzee,  the,  95,  132. 

Cistercian  Monks,  the,  61 ;  gesture- 
language  of,  61. 

Cobra-de-capello,  the,  105. 

Conceit,  262. 

Contempt,  254 ;  snapping  the  fingers, 
257. 

Cooke,  the  actor,  250. 

Cooper,  Dr.,  105,  n.  22. 

Cope,  Professor,  109,  n.  31. 

Coughing,  164. 

Crantz,  260. 


D. 


Darwin,  Dr.,  30,  n.  3,  46,  n.  16,  40. 
Deaf  and    dumb,   opposites   used   in 

teaching  them,  61,  62,  n.  3. 
Deceit,  262. 
Decision,     or     determination,    235} 

closing  of  the  mouth,  236. 
Dejection,  178. 
Defiance,  249. 
Depression  of  mind,  80. 
Dermal  appendages,  erection  of,  95 ; 

in  the  chimpanzee  and  orang,  95  ; 

lion,   &c.,   96 ;   dog  and   cat,    96 ; 

horses  and  cattle,  96 ;  elk,  97  ;  bat, 


97  ;  birds,  97  ;  under  the  iufluence 
of  anger  and  fear,  100. 

Despair,  178. 

Devotion,  the  expression  of,  2?0,  221. 

Diagrams  of  the  muscles  of  the  face, 
24,  25. 

Dickens,  Charles,  243. 

Dilatation  of  the  pupils,  303. 

Disdain,  254. 

Disgust,  257  ;  spitting  a  sign  of,  261. 

Dog,  the,  sympathetic  movements  of, 
7 ;  turning  round  before  lying  down, 
42 ;  pointing,  43 ;  scratching,  &c., 
45  ;  various  gestures  of,  63  ;  bark- 
ing a  means  of  expression,  85; 
whining,  88;  drawing  back  the 
ears,  111;  various  movements  of, 
116;  gestures  of  affection,  119; 
grinning,  120;  pain,  122;  atten- 
tion, 122;  terror,  122;  playing, 
123. 

Donders,  Professor,  160,  166,  229, 
304. 

Duchenne,  Dr.,  5,  11, 14,  133,  150,  n. 
4,  182. 


Ears,  the,  drawing  back,  &c.,  Ill ;  in 
fighting,  dogs,  cats,  tigers,  &c., 

111  horses,  112;  guanacoes,  &c., 

112  moose-deer,    113;     rabbits, 

113  wild   boars,   113;   monkeys, 
114;  erection  of  the,  114. 

Edgeworth,  Maria  and  R.  L.,  333. 

Elephants,  113;  weeping,  167. 

Emission  of  sounds,  83.     See  Sounds. 

Engelmann,  Professor,  229. 

Envy,  262. 

Erection  of  the  dermal  appendages, 
95-104. 

Erskine,  Mr.  H.,  21,  33,  187,  268, 
276. 

Etiquette,  breaches  of,  334. 

Expression,  anatomy  and  philosophy 
of,  2. 

,  general  principles  of,  27 ;  the 

three  chief,  27  ;  of  serviceable  asso- 
ciated habits,  29  ;  of  antithesis,  50 ; 
action  of  the  nervous  system,  67. 

,  means  of,  in  animals,  83  ;  emis- 
sion of  sounds,  83-94 ;  erection  of 
the  dermal  appendages,  95-104; 


370 


EXPRESSIONS. 


INDEX. 


HIPPOCRATES. 


inflation  of  the  body,  104-111; 
drawing  back  the  ears,  111-114; 
erection  of  the  ears,  114. 

Expressions,  special,  of  animals,  116 ; 
dogs,  116-126;  cats,  126-129; 
horses,  129-131;  ruminants,  131- 
132  ;  monkeys,  baboons,  chimpan- 
zees, 132-146. 

— — ,  special,  of  man,  147  ;  suffering, 
114;  weeping  in  children,  148; 
contraction  of  the  muscles  round 
the  eyes  during  screaming,  158 ; 
secretion  of  tears,  163  ;  grief,  178  ; 
obliquity  of  the  eyebrows,  179; 
grief-muscles,  181 ;  depression  of 
the  corners  of  the  mouth,  193 ; 
joy,  198 ;  high  spirits,  cheerful- 
ness, 212 ;  love,  tender  feelings, 
215 ;  devotion,  220. 

Eyebrows,  obliquity  of  the,  179. 

Eyes,  the,  contraction  of  the  muscles 
during  screaming,  158. 

F. 

Fear,  81,  289  ;  description  of,  by  Job, 
291. 

Feelings,  tender,  216 ;  excited  by 
sympathy,  217. 

Fighting,  mode  of,  in  animals,  111; 
all  carnivora  fight  with  their  canine 
teeth,  111 ;  dogs,  cats,  111 ;  horses, 
guanacoes,  &c.,  112;  moose-deer, 
113;  rabbits,  113;  boars,  113; 
elephants,  113;  rhinoceros,  114; 
monkeys,  114. 

Forbes,  Mr.  D.,  232,  318,  336. 

Ford,  Mr.,  95. 

Forster,  J.  R.,  318. 

Foster,  Mr.  Michael,  343,  344. 

Fox,  the,  125. 

Freyciiiet,  175. 

Frogs,  35,  104. 

Frowning,  the  act  of,  3,  223 ;  men  of 
all  races  frown,  224 ;  in  infants, 
225;  to  assist  vision,  226;  to  ex- 
clude the  bright  light,  227. 

Fyffe,  Dr.,  304. 

CK 

Gaika,  Christian,  22,  209,  255,  295, 

320. 
Galton,  Mr.  F.,  33,  n.  8. 


Garrod,  Mr.  A.  H.,  74,  n.  g. 

Gaskell,  Mrs.,  151,  n.  5. 

Geach,  Mr.  F.,  21, 187,  252,  261,  268, 
317. 

Gesture-language,  61. 

Gestures,  32,  62 ;  inheritance  of  ha- 
bitual, 33,  n.  8  ;  accompanying 
blushing,  321. 

Glenie,  the  Rev.  S.  0.,  21,  167,  252. 

Goose-skin,  101,  103. 

Gordon,  Lady  Duff,  317. 

Gorilla,  the,  95,  143. 

Gould,  100,  n.  14. 

Gratiolet,  Pierre,  6,  32,  119,  227, 
229,  n.  6,  236,  243,  n.  9,  338. 

Gray,  Professor,  and  Mrs.  Asa,  22, 
268,  316. 

Green,  Mrs.,  20. 

Grief,  80;  expression  of,  178;  obli- 
quity of  the  eyebrows,  179  ;  depres- 
sion of  the  corners  of  the  mouth, 
193  ;  in  monkeys,  135. 

Grief-muscles,  181-193. 

Gueldenstadt,  125,  n.  4. 

Guilt,  262  ;  causes  blushing,  333. 

Gunning,  Dr.,  162. 

Giinther,  Dr.,  100,  105,  108,  n.  30. 


Habit,  force  of,  29. 

Hagenauer,  the  Rev.,  20,  194,  26r 
321. 

Hair,  change  of  colour  in  the,  67 
342  ;  erection  of  the,  101,  295. 

Haller,  88. 

'Handbuch  der  Anatomic  des  Men- 
schen,'  5,  n.  7. 

Hares,  83. 

Harvey,  30,  n.  3. 

Hatred,  239  ;  rage,  240  ;  anger,  indig- 
nation, 246  ;  sneering,  defiance,  un- 
covering the  canine  tooth,  249. 

Heart,  the,  sensitive  to  external  emo- 
tions, 68  ;  re-acts  on  the  brain,  69  ; 
affected  by  rage,  74. 

Helmholtz,  88,  91. 

Helplessness,  264. 

Henderson,  Mr.,  409,  n.  3  r. 

Henle,  149,  n.  2,  193,  n.  6,  203. 

Herpestes,  the,  98,  108,  110. 

High  spirits,  212 ;  definition  of,  by  a 
child,  212. 

Hippocrates,  30,  n.  3,  72. 


HOLLAND. 


INDEX. 


MECANISME. 


371 


Holland,  Sir  Henry,  36,  37,  71,  n.  8, 
339,  n.  33,'  340. 

Homer's  description  of  laughter,  198. 

Horror,  304. 

Horse,  the,  45 ;  nibbling,  pawing  of, 
45 ;  scream  in  disti'ess,  84  ;  fight- 
ing, 112 ;  expression  of  fear,  plea- 
sure, &c.,  130. 

Humboldt,  137,  319. 

Humility,  262. 

Huschke,  287. 

Huxley,  Professor,  31,  n.  5,  35,  n.  9. 

Hyaena,  the,  123. 


Idiots,   expression    of  joy    in,    199 ; 

blushing,  311. 
Ill-temper,  230. 
Impotence,  264. 
Indignation,  246. 
Infants,  expression  in,  13  ;  crying  of, 

148 ;  weeping,  153. 
Inflation  of  the  body,  &c.,  104;    in 

toads  and  frogs,  104 ;  chameleons, 

&c.,  105;  snakes,  105-111. 
Inheritance  of  habitual  gestures,  33, 

n.  8  ;  blushing,  312. 
Innes,  Dr.,  267. 
Intercommunication,  power  of,  with 

social  animals,  60  ;  deaf  and  dumb, 

61 ;  dogs  and  cats,  63. 

J. 

Jealousy,  79,  262. 

Jerdon,  Dr.,  108. 

Job,  description  of  fear  by,  291. 

Joy,  expression. of,  75,  198;  in  young 

children,    76 ;    dogs,    horses,    76 ; 

monkeys,  132  ;  laughter,  198  ;  high 

spirits,    cheerfulness,    212 ;    love, 

tender  feelings,  215. 
Jukes,  Mr.  J.  B.,  275. 


Kangaroos,  113. 

Kindermann,  Herr,  23,  148,  n.  i. 

King,  Major  Ross,  113. 

Kissing,  216. 

Kolliker,  101. 


Lacy,  Mr.  Dyson,  20,  232,  243. 

Lane,  Mr.  H.  B.,  20. 

Lang,  Mr.  Archibald  G.,  20. 

Langstaff,  Dr.,  148,  152,  314. 

Language,  gesture,  611. 

Laughter,  93,  133, 164;  in  monkeys, 
132  ;  joy  expressed  by,  198 ;  in 
children,  198;  in  idiots,  199;  in 
grown-up  persons,  199 ;  caused  by 
tickling,  201 ;  sparkling  eye,  206  ; 
tears  caused  by  excessive,  208 ; 
among  Hindoos,  Malays,  &c.,  209 ; 
to  conceal  feelings,  214 ;  incipient, 
in  a  baby,  211. 

Lavater,  G.,  3,  n.  6. 

Laycock,  Professor,  340. 

Le  Brun,  1,  4,  247,  n.  13. 

Leichhardt,  261. 

Lemoine,  M.,  2,  359. 

Lessing's  Laocoon,  15  n.  19. 

Leydig,  101,  103. 

Lieber,  Mr.  F.,  198,  n.  2,  274. 

Lister,  Mr.,  101,  201,  n.  6. 

Litchfield,  Mr.,  89. 

Lizards,  105. 

Lock  wood,  the  Rev.  S.,  87,  n.  3. 

Lorain,  M.,  74,  n.  9. 

Love,  maternal,  78;  of  the  opposite 
sexes,  78 ;  expression  of,  215  ;  kiss- 
ing, a  mark  of,  216 ;  excites  tears, 
216. 

Low  spirits,  178. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John,  155,  216,  n.  22. 


Man,  special  expressions  of,  147.    See 

Expression. 

Mankind,  early  history  of,  257,  n.  6. 
Marshall,  Mr.,  155,  n.  9,  199,  n.  3. 
Martin,  W.L.,  133,  137,  140,  n.  17. 
Martius,  319. 
Matthews,  Mr.  Washington,  22,  230, 

257,  268,  276,  289. 
Maudsley,   Dr.,  36,  n.  10,  39,  n.  14, 

245,  342,  n.  40. 
Mauvaise  honte,  330. 
May,  Mr.  A.,  26. 
*  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie  Hu- 

maine,'  33,  n.  7. 


372 


MEDITATION. 


INDEX. 


RUMINANTS. 


Meditation,  228;  often  accompanied 
by  certain  gestures,  230. 

Meyer,  Dr.  Adolf,  275. 

Mind,  confusion  of,  while  blushing, 
323. 

Modesty,  335. 

Monkeys,  60;  power  of  intercommu- 
nication and  expression  of,  60,  88, 
96  ;  their  special  expressions,  1 32  ; 
pleasure,  joy,  &c.,  132;  painful 
emotions,  135  ;  anger,  137  ;  redden 
with  passion,  138  ;  screaming,  140  ; 
sulkiness  in,  140  ;  frowning.in,  143  ; 
astonishment,  terror  in,  144. 

Moose-deer,  the,  113. 

Moreau,  M.,  3,  314. 

Movements,  symbolic,  6 ;  sympa- 
thetic, 7. 

,  associated  habitual,  in  the  lower 

animals,  42 ;  dogs,  42-45 ;  wolves 
and  jackals,  44 ;  horses,  45 ;  cats, 
46  ;  chickens,  47  ;  sheldrakes,  &c., 
47,  48. 

Mowbray  on  Poultry,  47,  n.  18. 

Mullet,  Dr.  Ferdinand,  20. 

,  Fritz,  12,  29,  n.  2,  68,  n.  2,  71, 

n.  6,  268. 

Music  219. 

N. 

Negation,  signs  of,  273. 

Nervous  system,  direct  action  of  the, 
66 ;  change  of  colour  in  the  hair, 
67,  342 ;  trembling  of  the  muscles, 
67  ;  secretions  affected,  68  ;  perspi- 
ration, 73;  rage,  74;  joy,  75; 
terror,  77  ;  love,  78  ;  jealousy,  79  ; 
grief,  80. 

Nicol,  Mr.  Patrick,  14,  185,  300. 


0. 


Ogle,  Dr.  W.,  256,  n.  3,  271,  294,  306. 
Oliphant,  Mrs.,  80,  n.  12,  270. 
Olmsted,  270. 

Owen,  Professor,  10,  n.  13,  87,  n.  3, 
143,  n.  18. 


P. 

Paget,  Sir  J.,  68,  117,  312,  342. 


Pain,  outward  signs  of,  in  animals, 
69  ;  in  man,  69  ;  in  the  hippopota- 
mus, 70  ;  induces  perspiration,  73  ; 
depression,  81. 

Parsons,  J.,  1,  n.  r. 

Perspiration  caused  by  pain,  73. 

Physiology  of  laughter,  9. 

*  Physionomie,  de  la,  et  des  Mouve- 
ments  d'Expression,'  6. 

Piderit,  Dr.,  7,  23, 152,  206,  223,  237, 
256. 

Pigs  employed  to  destroy  rattlesnakes, 
108. 

Platysma  myoides  muscle,  contraction 
of  the,  298. 

Plautus,  230. 

Porcupines,  93. 

Pouchet,  M.  G.,  67,  n.  i. 

Pride,  263. 

Psychology,  principles  of,  9. 

Puff-adder,  the,  105. 

Pupils,  dilatation  of  the,  303. 


Queries  regarding  expression,  &c.,  15. 


Rabbits,  83,  93,  113. 

Rage,  74,  240;  trembling  a  conse- 
quence of,  241;  Shakespeare's  de- 
scription of,  242  ;  snarling  with  the 
teeth,  243. 

Rattlesnake,  the,  107,  109. 

Reade,  Mr.  Winwood,  21,  279,  289. 

Reflection,  222;  deep,  generally  ac- 
companied with  a  frown,  224. 

Reflex  actions,  35. 

Rejlander,  Mr.,  23,  148,  n.  1, 183,  202, 
250. 

Rengger,  60,  88,  133,  n.  u,  137. 

Resignation,  271. 

Retching  or  vomiting,  159. 

Revenge,  262. 

Reynolds,  Sir  J.,  208,  n.  15. 

Rhinoceros,  73,  114. 

Riviere,  Mr.,  26,  121. 

Rothrock,  Dr.,  22,  232,  252,  260. 

Ruminants,  their  emotions,  131. 


SALVIN. 


INDEX. 


VOICE. 


373 


s. 

Salvin,  Mr.  F.,  44,  n.  15. 

Sandwich  islanders,  175. 

Savage  and  Wyman,  Messrs.,  143. 

Schmalz,  274. 

Scorn,  254. 

Scott,  Sir  W.,  121. 

,  Mr.  J.,  21,  187,  248-250,  260, 

267. 

,  Dr.  W.  R.,  62,  n,  3. 

Scream,  as  a  call  for  assistance,  91. 

Secretary-hawk,  the,  110. 

Secretions,  affected  by  strong  emo- 
tions, 68. 

Senses,  the,  and  the  Intellect,  8,  n.  8, 
31. 

Shaler,  Professor,  107,  109. 

Shame,  gestures  of,  321 ;  description 
of,  in  Isaiah,  Ezra,  &c.,  322. 

Sheldrake,  the,  47. 

Shrugging  the  shoulders,  264. 

Shyness,  330. 

Signs  of  affirmation  and  negation,  273 ; 
conventional,  61. 

Slyness,  263. 

Smiling,  204,  211;  in  infants,  212; 
in  savages,  213. 

Smith,  Sir  Andrew,  209. 

Smyth,  Mr.  Brough,  20,  285,  294. 

Snakes,  105-111. 

Snapping  the  fingers,  257. 

Sneering  or  snarling,  249. 

Sobbing,  peculiar  to  the  human 
species,  157. 

Somerville,  121. 

Sounds,  the  emission  of,  efficient  as  a 
means  of  expression,  83 ;  between 
the  sexes,  84 ;  to  animals  when 
separated,  84;  of  rage,  85;  the 
bark  of  a  dog,  85  -,  tamed  jackals, 
86  ;  pigeons,  86 ;  human  voice,  86  ; 
as  a  means  of  courtship,  87  ;  music, 
89 ;  in  young  infants,  92 ;  of  sur- 
prise, contempt,  and  disgust,  92 ; 
rabbits,  93 ;  porcupines,  93 ;  in- 
sects, 94 ;  birds,  94. 

Speedy,  Captain,  22,  261,  268. 

Spencer,  Mr.  Herbert,  9, 10,  n.  IT,  27, 
n.  i,  71,  86,  200,  227,  n.  5,  263. 

Sphinx-moth,  the  humming-bird,  30. 

Spitting,  a  sign  of  disgust,  261. 


Spix,  von,  319. 

St.  John,  Mr.,  47. 

Stack,  the  Rev.  J.  W.,  20,  233,  248, 
317. 

Stuart,  Mr.,  280. 

Suffering  of  body  and  mind,  147. 

Sulkiness,  232  ;  expression  of,  prevails 
throughout  the  world,  233 ;  in  mon- 
keys, 140;  in  young  orangs,  &c.. 

Summary,  348. 

Surprise,  278. 

Suspicion,  262. 

Sutton,  Mr.,  95,  139,  145,  167,  259. 

Swinhoe,  Mr.,  21,  208,  248,  317. 

Sympathy,  217. 


T. 

Taplin,  the  Rev.  George,  20,  187,  247, 

321. 

Taylor,  the  Rev.  R.,  156. 
Tears,  cause  of  the  secretion  of,  163; 

laughing,  coughing,  164;  yawning, 

165  ;  reflex  action,  170. 
Tegetmeier,  Mr.,  100. 
Tendencies,  inherited   or  instinctive, 

30. 

Tennent,  Sir  J.  Emerson,  167. 
Terror,  77,  289  ;  in  an  insane  woman. 

292  ;  in  murderers,  293  ;  dilatation 

of  the  pupils,  303. 
Thwaites,  Mr.,  167. 
Tickling,  201. 
Toads,  104. 
Trembling,  induced  by  fear,  67  ;  by 

delight,  67  ;  by  fine  music,  68 ;  by 

rage,  68  ;  by  terror,  77. 
Turner,  Professor  W.,  101,  n.  18. 
Tylor,  Mr.,  61,  n.  2,  257,  261,  n.  n. 


V. 

Vanity,  262. 

Variation  of  animals  and  plants  under 

domestication,  33,  n.  8. 
Vaso-motor  system,  the,  69. 
Virchow,  35,  n.  9. 
Voeux,  Mr.  des,  110,  n.  32. 
Vogt,  C.,  206,  n.  12,  274. 
Voice,  the  human,  86. 


374 


WALLICH. 


INDEX. 


YAWNING. 


w. 

Wallich,  Dr.,  23,  202. 

Weak,  Mr.  J.  P.  Hansel,  22, 230,  233, 
286. 

Wedgwood,  Mr  Hensleigh,  104,  164, 
n.  18,  221,  232,  n.  10,  241,  n.  6, 
273. 

Weeping,  147;  the  period  of  first 
shedding  tears  in  infants  quite  un- 
certain, 153  ;  in  savages,  155  ;  in 
the  insane,  155;  checking  or  in- 
creasing the  habit  of,  156  ;  scream- 
ing and  sobbing  of  infants,  157. 
See  Tears. 


Weir,  Mr.  Jenner,  98. 
West,  Mr.,  21. 
Wild-boar,  113. 
Wilson,  Mr.,  19. 

,  Mr.  Samuel,  20,  320. 

'  Wissenschaftliches  System   der  Mi- 

mik  u  nd  Physiognomik,'  7. 
Wolf,  Mr.,  26. 
Wood,  Mr.  J.,  181,  n.  3,  297,  302. 

,  Mr.  T.  W.,  25. 

Wrinkles,  204. 


Y. 

Yawning,  134,  165. 


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